The Insanity Defense By Steven Steinberg - 1084 Words

While reading chapter 2 of The Insanity Defense we discussed many different versions of the insanity defense and whether or not they’re valid or not. This interested me so much that I decided to actually go online and research the most ‘insane’ ways to use the insanity defense. Within this research I found various cases where it was used and was so shocked at how bizarre almost all of them are that I decided to write a 3-page paper on it, enjoy. The first case I read about brings us all the way back to 1981. In Arizona, Steven Steinberg awakens from a sleep to find his wife stabbed to death 26 times. Steven quickly fumbles over her body to the phone and calls police immediately. He tells them his wife has been murdered in a burglary gone wrong. Upon investigation though, police discover that this was no burglary, that in fact Steven was the one who has killed his wife. Steven in a state of confusion recounts that night because he has no memory of murdering his wif e, he explains to police he had no reason to, he loved her. This case then went to trial and Steinberg told judges that he was sleepwalking at the time of the murder, and therefore not ‘sane’ during it. The jury found Steven Steinberg not guilty and he was free to go. So is sleepwalking a valid insanity defense? In my opinion yes, I believe while sleepwalking you’re in a dissociative mental state that you can’t control. When sleeping your daytime reality becomes a distorted dream, in Stevens case his wife wasShow MoreRelatedThe Murder Of Murder By Steven Steinberg Essay1695 Words   |  7 PagesIn 1981 Steven Steinberg was accused of murdering his wife Elena Steinberg by stabbing her twenty-six times in Scottsdale, Arizona (Guy, 2015). At the time of the murder, Steinberg was the one who called law enforcement to report an attempted break-in at his home, even though no signs of force entry were found at the scene. During that time, the case drew a lot of publicity in the state of Arizona; not only because it was a horrifying crime, but because it was a case that involved a murder whileRead MoreThe Ideological Concept Of Insanity Defense2313 Words   |  10 PagesThe ideological concept of an insanity defense, formerly termed â€Å"complete madness,† was originally incorporated into the English common-law jurisprudence system in the late thirteenth century of the United Kingdom as an affirmative defense for defendants under the yoke of criminal charges involving a heinous action which could involve the option of termination of a defendant’s life if adjudge guilty of such act (Hill). Through such incorporation of a legal defense, the institution of a new societalRead MoreWhen Pleaded Not Guilty By Insanity1858 Words   |  8 Pagesâ€Å"They smelled too bad† was the response when saying he would never have intercourse with the dead bodies he dug out of graves (Yoong). He pleaded not guilty by insanity. Ed Gein filled his home in Connecticut with human body parts; he assembled a suit made of human skin, a belt that was made of female nipples and a lampshade formed from a human face. Gein was interested in skinning people and also the female parts. On November 1957 Bernice Worden disappeared from her local hardware store (Yoong)Read MoreOne Significant Change That Has Occurred in the World Between 1900 and 2005. Explain the Impact This Change Has Made on Our Lives and Why It Is an Important Change.163893 Words   |  656 Pagestime after the death of Mao in 1976. But the modernizing leaders, who wanted to end the ideological turmoil in favor of economic and technological development, arrested her. At her trial in 1980–1981, Jiang actually helped undo the Mao myth by her defense, which focused on Mao’s arbitrariness and use of brute power: â€Å"I was Mao’s dog,† she proclaimed. â€Å"What he said to bite, I bit† (Terrill in Smith 2008, II:652). Elsewhere, women participated in the resurgence of the nationalist independence movements

The Largest Earthquake in the World Free Essays

The largest earthquake in the world had a magnitude of 9. 5 and took place in Chile. The Valdivia Earthquake, also know as the Great Chilean Earthquake, happened on Sunday, May 22, 1960. We will write a custom essay sample on The Largest Earthquake in the World or any similar topic only for you Order Now It is the largest earthquake currently on record. It occured in the afternoon and the resulting tsunami affected southern Chile, Hawaii, Japan, the Philippines, eastern New Zealand, southeast Australia, and the Aleutian Islands in Alaska. The epicenter of the Valdivia earthquake was near Lumaco, a coastal city with a population of roughly 11,405. Various estimates of the total number of fatalities from the earthquake and tsunamis have been published, with the USGS citing studies with figures of 2,231; 3,000; or 5,700 killed, and another source uses an estimate of 6,000 dead. An estimated cost of 2. 9 to 5. 8 billion in damage. The 1960 Valdivia earthquake was actually just a series of many strong earthquakes from May 21 to June 6,1960. The first was the Concepcion earthquake and the strongest was the Valdivia earthquake. The first Concepcion earthquake was on May 21,1960. Its epicenter was near Curanilahue. The second and third Concepcion earthquakes occurred a few hours apart from each other on May 22. The Valdivia earthquake occurred on May 22. This earthquake affected all of Chile between Talca and Chiloe Island, more than 150,000 sq mi. Most coastal villages disappeared. At Corral, the main port of Valdivia, the water level rose 13 ft before it began to recede. A wave of 26 ft struck the Chilean coast, mainly between Concepcion and Chiloe. Ten minutes later another wave measuring 33 ft was reported. Hundreds of people were already reported dead by the time the tsunami struck. One ship, Canelos, starting at the mouth of Valdivia River sank after being moved 0. 93 mi backward and forward in the river; its mast is still visible today. A number of Spanish-colonial forts were completely destroyed. Soil subsidence also destroyed buildings, deepened local rivers, and created wetlands in places like the Rio Cruces and Chorocomayo, a new aquatic park north of the city. Extensive areas of the city were flooded. The electricity and water systems of Valdivia were totally destroyed. Witnesses reported underground water flowing up through the soil. Despite the heavy rains of May 21, the city was without a water supply. The river turned brown with sediment from landslides and was full of floating debris, including entire houses. The earthquake did not strike all the territory with the same strength. The two most affected areas were Valdivia and Puerto Octay near the northwest corner Llanquihue Lake. East of Puerto Octay in a hotel in Todos los Santos Lake piles of plates were reported to have remained in place. Two days after the earthquake a volcanic vent erupted. Other volcanoes may also have erupted, but none were recorded due to the lack of communication in Chile at the time. The relatively low death toll in Chile, estimated at 6,000, is explained in part by the low population density and by buildings being built taking into account that the region has many earthquakes and volcano eruptions. Other possible reasons include a high number of wooden houses and that coastal towns also tended to be located on higher ground. After the eruption, began the landslides. The earthquake triggered many landslides, mostly near the Andes. These landslides did not cause many fatalities nor significant economical losses because most of the areas were uninhabited with only minor roads. One landslide did cause destruction and alarm following its blockage of the outflow of Rinihue Lake. About 100 km south of Rinihue Lake, landslides in the mountains around Golgol River caused this river to dam up and then burst creating a flood down to Puyehue Lake. The Valdivia earthquake led to the formation of the ONEMI. ONEMI is the Spanish acronym for National Emergency and Information Office. ONEMI helps solve problems after earthquakes, large or small. The Valvidia earthquake was also referenced in two fictional novels, and the tsunami following the earthquake was referenced in a Hawaii Five-O episode titled â€Å"Forty Feet High and it Kills! â€Å". How to cite The Largest Earthquake in the World, Essay examples

Types of Cloud Services Used by Business-Free-Samples for Students

Question: Discuss about the Advantages and disadvantages of Cloud Computing in Business. Answer: Introduction: The cloud computing has been delivering the ways for the current businesses for managing the computing resources in online. The word has developed in the recent years and is used for describing the third party usage for the computing and storage needs (Hashem et al., 2015). A list of advantages and disadvantageous rising from cloud computing is brought in this report. This is done from the perspective to help in understanding the idea of cloud computing. The report has analyzed the project scope and objectives, and provided an in detailed literature review regarding the concern. Lastly, an effective conclusion is drawn keeping the cloud computing and its various ways of impact, both positive and negative, on the business sector, in mind. Project objective: The objective of the project includes the converting of the external packaged applications like Google email turning into the SaaS tenant. Then it should help in implementing Microsoft Office 365 in cloud. Moreover it must create cloud-based storage/server infrastructure as the standard resources for the corporate users. The project must establish the testing platform of standard program and deploy the development ser tool regarding the development of cloud applications. Moreover a latest enterprise application of cloud-based could be developed utilizing the current PaaS environment. A cloud-based backup of data or any system of recovery system must be implemented and a cloud-based system of security management should be acquired Project scope: The scopes of the project must include: What amount of cloud ecosystem is to be incorporated in the scope of the project? Has been the formal procurement needed or have the cloud record vendors been appointed already? Is there any need of business case based on cloud or has any first policy of cloud been adopted already? Have there been any unique customization, specialization or integration requirements for the required application? Has there been any potential compliance or any extra regulatory roadblocks? The Project manager must also establish the maturity level of the companys cloud before doing the in-detailed planning for the given project. The maturity level must include the starting, repeatable, the systematic, measured or the optimized. The literature review: The background: The cloud computing has been developing like never before in organizations of every size and shape adapting to this latest technology. The industry experts, Rittinghouse and Ransome (2016) have believed that the trend should continue to evolve even more in the upcoming years. The cloud computing has been in no doubt advantageous for the medium to large companies without the downside particularly for the smaller businesses. According to Hameed et al., (2016) the cloud computing has been seemed to be a buzzword of this decade and the business have been making the switches every day more than before. The IT processes could make the regular computing much simpler while harnessing the efficiency of the cloud computing to the streamline. Before making any switch the companies must be aware enough whether they are ready or not. There lies no confusion that the businesses could reap large benefits from the technology. It contains its own ups and downs. However, Patel et al., (2013) states that apart from the loss of various celebrity figures, the year 2016 is an epitome to retrospect. The up-going and downfall also includes some significant data breaches that have hit the news. Despite this, the cloud emerged the other side stronger and bigger than previous. In fact, it has made the headway so much that it has been a quarter as popular than it has been four years back. This indicates that the cloud has been not on the horizon any more. It has been no longer in the stage of early adopter. It is established and expected to stay well enough. It has been once the purview of the conglomerates and large companies. It has reached a new height of democratization. Here the business can now get benefit from cloud irrespective of their size. This is due to the fact that it has overcame the starting years of hype and has witnessed larger adoption as the de facto solution of IT for the business as researched by Fernndez et al., (2014). Usage of cloud computing in business: The term cloud in the article of Gonzlez-Martnez et al., (2015) has been referring to the internet and the operation within the cloud indicates the approach in which the data is stored and accessed via internet connection. The cloud computing has been permitting the business to make access unto their data virtually by creating a global and flexible way to access information any time, any place. The cloud computing is the broad term denoting various kinds of cloud services. It includes the cloud storage that deals with the storing and backing up of files to access regularly and share and syncs them around devices. Next it is used for cloud backup. Unlike the cloud storage it basically utilizes the backup source during cyber attack, crash and the other data losses. It is also used as SaaS( Software as a Service) using the web for providing services like Salesforce, QuickBooks Online, Google Apps and Office 365 (Mezgr Rauschecker, 2014). Lastly it is used as the cloud hosting that facilitates every kinds of sharing of information like application hosting, email services, data storage and web-based phone systems. Types of cloud services used by business: Modi et al., (2013) helped in understanding that the business owners have been using three kinds of cloud services for storing their information and to provide services. The first one is the public cloud that is built on the external platform which is run by the cloud service provider. With the help of this off-site cloud service, the users achieve their own cloud under the shared infrastructure. The provider has been offering all the things from the systems resources to maintenance and security of the cloud system. It has been managed by the external company specialized in cloud services, for a broader range of customers. Hence a public system of cloud is effective for the companies requiring more cost-effective, elastic and latest technology. The next one is the private cloud, which the platform is built under the companys own walls on the companys own software and hardware. As a private cloud is controlled by the companys own internal team of IT, it has been exemplary for businesses that need exclusive access, greater control and more flexibility regarding cloud. However, for using the private cloud service, the companies have been building their own information centers making that an expensive cloud option. The last one is the hybrid cloud that has been employing both the public and private clouds. Here the own team of companys IT controls some part of cloud in-house and the remaining off-site. For example as given by Mathew, Sekaran and Jose (2014), it is great for any company that needs to control the business related data like the customer files in-house and on the other hand needs to store the information which is less sensitive with the third party. The advantages of cloud computing in business: The business has been using cloud computing for accessing data anywhere in any type of compatible device. Instead of storing data in the computer or in any server at the office, the cloud computing has been storing data over the internet as argued by Moharana, Ramesh and Powar (2013). It has been working making data available from the core hub which is web-based. It has been giving anyone the needed credentials access with the internet connection from any location. The cloud computing has been also syncing information every devices that is linked to the cloud. This is done keeping them up-to-date with the real-time information. Zhan et al., (2013) demonstrated that the users could access every kind of files in the cloud environment. They can utilize the applications like they have in the office and could also collaborate remotely whole working over the similar project or the presentation on the device as anyone over the other side of the world. As anyone is away from the work or the office server gets inaccessible the data in the cloud is upgraded every time and available at any time, any place. The services of cloud computing could be ranging from the functional programs to the data storage including the remote desktop hosting, customer service tools and accounting. Some of the highlighted advantages of cloud computing is discussed hereby. Fresh software: According to Manvi and Shyam (2014) with the SaaS, the current version of these applications required to undergo the business have been made available to every customers as they gets released. The quick up-gradation inserts latest functionalities and features in the hand of the workers making them more productive. This has been unlike the purchased or home grown software that possess latest releases primarily once in a year and an adequate time for rolling out. Doing more with the less: With the help of this technology, the organizations could decrease the size of their data centers. They could further eradicate the footprint of the data center altogether. The decrease in number of staff, software cost and the number of servers notably reduces the cost of IT affecting the IT capabilities. Flexible costs: The expenses of the cloud computing has been very much flexible than the conventional ones. Garrison, Wakefield and Kim (2015) analyzed that more capacities could be provisioned in the peak times and could be de-provisioned when not needed. The always-on availability: The connections are on every time as long as the employees possess the Internet connection. Some of the applications have been even working in off-line. The enhanced mobility: The applications and data have been able to the employees regardless the fact that where they have been. The employees could carry their tasks anytime anywhere. Arising collaboration: The application enhances the collaboration through permitting the dispersed group of individuals for meeting virtually. They can also share data easily in real time through the shared storage as mentioned by Sadiku, Musa and Momoh (2014). Cost effectiveness: The companies need not to buy the equipments and operate and built out the data centers. Hence they do not need to spend huge money on the utilities, facilities, hardware and other elements of the operations. Quick reduction of expenses: When the recession time or the business cut-backs takes place, Sajid and Raza (2013) writes that the cloud computing delivers the flexible structure of cost. Thus it restricts the exposure. The flexible capacity: The cloud has been the flexible facility that could be turned down or up or off. This depends on the situations. For instance, Sadooghi et al., (2017) states that the promotion of sales could be popular widely and the capacity could be added fast for avoiding the losing sales and crashing servers. As the sales gets over, the capacity could shrink in reducing costs. Facilitating the management and the administration activities: The cloud computing has been accommodating the quick changes such that two organizations could turn into one much efficiently and quicker. Lesser environmental effect: With the fewer worldwide data centers and more effective operators, the business has been having lesser influence on the environment. Chandrasekaran (2014) quiet argues that the businesses using shared resources enhance their green testimonials. Disadvantages of cloud computing: The cloud computing has delivered certain advantages by saving money and time for the business. However, according to Rajaraman (2014), alike many other technologies it has possessed its share of drawbacks. Hence, it has been vital to be aware of the potential issues and the shortcomings before any business decides to put back the IT infrastructures and go for the virtual facilities over the cloud. The several disadvantages are discussed hereby. The possible downtime without any internet connection: The cloud computing has been fully relying on the Internet connections. As the connection or the network gets down, the cloud services could get down as well. The entire system or the operations could turn idle as there has not been any alternative internet connection or necessary back-up. The security and the privacy issues: The security in the cloud has been usually reliable and good. However, the vendors of the established cloud computing have been ensuring that they have the most sophisticated and the latest systems of data security. Hsu et al., (2014) showed that this is because the data security has been huge concern for the businesses. Moreover, there lies another concern regarding the security is the attack of the hackers and breaching of the systems. The privacy has been another issue. As any user logs into from any location for accessing the applications and data, it has been possible that the privacy if the use can get compromised. No presence of hard drives: Some customers might recognize it cheaper to eradicate the hard drives since that could decrease the costs. However, those who have been using the programs that has been requiring any embedded hard drive, the usage of the cloud computing could be inconvenient enough. Data ownership: Duan et al., (2013) emphasized on the fact that this could be an important hurdle especially when the business possesses loads of data for handling. There has been no clarity regarding the data ownership. So there might not be any proper answer to the basic questions owning the data maintained by the cloud storage services. This has been regardless whether that has been the uploader or data storage provider. Inflexibility: While going for the vendor of cloud computing, the terms and conditions are too checked so that never locks the business into using the proprietary formats or applications. There must be situations when any document could not be inserted generated in other application. This might be detrimental for the business. Lack of support: In comparison to the custom-built software and the most packaged ones, the cloud services never have the effective support of customer care system. This it could be hard in getting them on the e-mail or phone as per as Rajaraman (2014), as they generally never deliver the illustrated manual for the users Integrating the latency and the peripherals: The business might face various hardships in connecting the wireless devices. This has been particularly as it come to the personal devices like the printers to cloud network as disclosed by Chandrasekaran (2014). There might be also problems regarding the software incompatibilities since most of the devices have been still designed for connecting particularly to any PC. There might be also latency issues or any time lag while linking the system to the servers of remote clouds. Conclusion: Like every other things the cloud computing too possesses its pros and cons. As the technology has been proving to the highest asset to the business, it could also be the reason of harm as not used or understood properly. It has been offering the business with many advantages. It has been permitting to set up the virtual office. This has been providing flexibility to connect the business anytime and anywhere. With the rising number of the devices that are web-enabled used in the current business environment, the access to the data is also easier. Working off the hard drive is the way in which the IR industry has functioned for long time. As the businesses address their concerns regarding compliance and security by widening the corporate policies to the data in the clod and invest in the gaps of cloud skills, they could more fully take the best from the advantages of the cloud services. References: Chandrasekaran, K. (2014).Essentials of cloud computing. CRC Press. Duan, J., Faker, P., Fesak, A., Stuart, T. (2013). Benefits and drawbacks of cloud-based versus traditional ERP systems.Proceedings of the 2012-13 course on Advanced Resource Planning. Fernndez, A., del Ro, S., Lpez, V., Bawakid, A., del Jesus, M. J., Bentez, J. M., Herrera, F. (2014). Big Data with Cloud Computing: an insight on the computing environment, MapReduce, and programming frameworks.Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery,4(5), 380-409. Garrison, G., Wakefield, R. L., Kim, S. (2015). The effects of IT capabilities and delivery model on cloud computing success and firm performance for cloud supported processes and operations.International Journal of Information Management,35(4), 377-393. Gonzlez-Martnez, J. A., Bote-Lorenzo, M. L., Gmez-Snchez, E., Cano-Parra, R. (2015). Cloud computing and education: A state-of-the-art survey.Computers Education,80, 132-151. Hameed, A., Khoshkbarforoushha, A., Ranjan, R., Jayaraman, P. P., Kolodziej, J., Balaji, P., ... Khan, S. U. (2016). A survey and taxonomy on energy efficient resource allocation techniques for cloud computing systems.Computing,98(7), 751-774. Hashem, I. A. T., Yaqoob, I., Anuar, N. B., Mokhtar, S., Gani, A., Khan, S. U. (2015). The rise of big data on cloud computing: Review and open research issues.Information Systems,47, 98-115. Hsu, P. F., Ray, S., Li-Hsieh, Y. Y. (2014). Examining cloud computing adoption intention, pricing mechanism, and deployment model.International Journal of Information Management,34(4), 474-488. Manvi, S. S., Shyam, G. K. (2014). Resource management for Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) in cloud computing: A survey.Journal of Network and Computer Applications,41, 424-440. Mathew, T., Sekaran, K. C., Jose, J. (2014, September). Study and analysis of various task scheduling algorithms in the cloud computing environment. InAdvances in Computing, Communications and Informatics (ICACCI, 2014 International Conference on(pp. 658-664). IEEE. Mezgr, I., Rauschecker, U. (2014). The challenge of networked enterprises for cloud computing interoperability.Computers in Industry,65(4), 657-674. Modi, C., Patel, D., Borisaniya, B., Patel, H., Patel, A., Rajarajan, M. (2013). A survey of intrusion detection techniques in cloud.Journal of Network and Computer Applications,36(1), 42-57. Moharana, S. S., Ramesh, R. D., Powar, D. (2013). Analysis of load balancers in cloud computing.International Journal of Computer Science and Engineering,2(2), 101-108. Patel, A., Taghavi, M., Bakhtiyari, K., JNior, J. C. (2013). An intrusion detection and prevention system in cloud computing: A systematic review.Journal of network and computer applications,36(1), 25-41. Rajaraman, V. (2014). Cloud computing.Resonance,19(3), 242-258. Rittinghouse, J. W., Ransome, J. F. (2016).Cloud computing: implementation, management, and security. CRC press. Sadiku, M. N., Musa, S. M., Momoh, O. D. (2014). Cloud computing: opportunities and challenges.IEEE potentials,33(1), 34-36. Sadooghi, I., Martin, J. H., Li, T., Brandstatter, K., Maheshwari, K., de Lacerda Ruivo, T. P. P., ... Raicu, I. (2017). Understanding the performance and potential of cloud computing for scientific applications.IEEE Transactions on Cloud Computing,5(2), 358-371. Sajid, M., Raza, Z. (2013, November). Cloud computing: Issues challenges. InInternational Conference on Cloud, Big Data and Trust(Vol. 20, No. 13, pp. 13-15). What Are the Benefits and Drawbacks of Cloud Computing?. (2017).Techsoup.org. Retrieved 13 August 2017, from https://www.techsoup.org/support/articles-and-how-tos/what-are-the-benefits-and-drawbacks-of-cloud-computing Zhan, Z. H., Liu, X. F., Gong, Y. J., Zhang, J., Chung, H. S. H., Li, Y. (2015). Cloud computing resource scheduling and a survey of its evolutionary approaches.ACM Computing Surveys (CSUR),47(4), 63

When Was Do It free essay sample

Is an admired aesthetic of attitude, behavior, comportment, appearance and style, influenced by and a product of the Zeitgeist. Because of the varied and changing connotations of cool, as well its subjective nature, the word has no single meaning. It has associations of composure and self-control (CB. The Definition) and often Is used as an expression of admiration or approval. Although commonly regarded as slang, it is widely used among disparate social groups, and has endured in usage for generations. There is no single concept of cool. One of the essential heartsickness of cool is its mutability-?what is considered cool changes over time and varies among cultures and generations. [l] Nick Southeast writes that, although some notions of cool can be traced back to Aristotle, whose notion of cool Is to be found in his ethical writings, most particularly the Mechanical it is not confined to one particular ethnic group or gender. We will write a custom essay sample on When Was Do It or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Although there is no single concept of cool, its definitions fall into a few broad categories.Cool as a behavioral characteristic The sum and substance of cool is a self-conscious aplomb in overall behavior, which entails a set of specific behavioralcharacteristics that is firmly anchored in cosmology, a set of discernible bodily movements, postures, facial expressions and voluptuousness that are acquired and take on strategic social value within the peer context. [3] Cool was once an attitude fostered by rebels and underdogs, such as slaves, prisoners, bikers and political dissidents, etc. For whom open rebellion invited punishment, so it hid defiance behind a wall of ironic detachment, distancing Itself from the source of authority rather than directly confronting let. [4] cool as a state of being Cool has been used to describe a general state of well-being, a transcendent, internal peace and serenity. [5] It can also refer to an absence of conflict, a state of harmony and balance as in, The land Is cool, or as In a cool [spiritual] heart. Such meanings, according to Thompson, are African In origin.Cool Is related In this sense to both social control and transcendental balance. [5] Cool can similarly be used to describe composure and absence of excitement in a person-?especially in times of stress-?as expressed in the idiom to keep your cool. In a related way, the word can be seed to express agreement or assent. As In the phrase Im cool with that. Cool as aesthetic appeal Cool is also an attitude widely adopted by artists and intellectuals, who thereby aided its infiltration into popular culture.Sought by product marketing firms, idealized by teenagers, a shield against racial oppression or political persecution and source of constant cultural innovation, cool has become a global phenomenon that has spread to every corner of the earth. [2] According to Dick Fountain and David Robins, concepts of cool have existed for centuries in several cultures. [l] Cool as an epithet While slang terms are usually short-lived coinages and figures of speech, cool Is an especially ubiquitous slang word, most notably among young people.As well as being understood throughout the English-speaking world, the word has even entered the general positive epithet or interjection, which can have a range of related adjectival meanings. Regions Africa and the African Diaspora Your bronze head sculpture from the city of Fife, Nigeria c. 12th century A. D Author Robert Affair Thompson, professor of art history at Yale University, suggests that tutu, which he translates as mystic coolness,'[6] is one of three pillars of a elisions philosophy created in the 1 5th century[7] by Your and Gobo civilizations of West Africa.Cool, or tutu, contained meanings of conciliation and gentleness of character, of generosity and grace, and the ability to defuse fights and disputes. It also was associated with physical beauty. In Your culture, tutu is connected to water, because to the Your the concept of coolness retained its physical connotation of temperature. [8] He cites a definition of cool from the Goal people flabbier, who define it as the ability to be mentally calm or detached, in an other- orally fashion, from ones circumstances, to be nonchalant in situations where emotionalism or eagerness would be natural and expected. [5] Joseph M.Murphy writes that cool is also closely associated with the deity Sun of the Your religion. [9] Although Thompson acknowledges similarities between African and European cool in shared notions of self-control and imperturbability,[8] he finds the cultural value of cool in Africa which influenced the African Diaspora to be different from that held by Europeans, who use the term primarily as the ability to remain calm under stress. According to Thompson, there is significant weight, meaning and spirituality attached to cool in traditional African cultures, something which, Thompson argues, is absent from the idea in a Western context. Control, stability, and composure under the African rubric of the cool seem to constitute elements of an all-embracing aesthetic attitude. African cool, writes Thompson, is more complicated and more variously expressed than Western notions of sang- frond (literally, cold blood), cooling off, or even icy determination. (Thompson, African Arts) The telling point is that the mask of lowness is worn not only in time of stress, but also of pleasure , in fields of expressive performance and the dance.Struck by the re-occurrence of this vital notion elsewhere in tropical Africa and in the Black Americas, I have come to term the attitude an aesthetic of the cool in the sense of a deeply and completely motivated, consciously artistic, interweaving of elements serious and pleasurable, of responsibility and play. [10] African Americans Ronald Perry writes that many words and expressions have passed from African American Vernacular English into Standard English slang including the contemporary meaning of the word cool. [11] The definition, as something fashionable, is said to have been popularized in Jazz circles by tenor saxophonist Lester Young. [12] This predominantly black Jazz scene in the U. S. And among expatriate musicians unpartisan helped popularize notions of cool in the U. S. In the sass, giving birth to Bohemian, or beatnik, culture. [2] Shortly thereafter, a style of Jazz called cool jazz appeared on the music scene, emphasizing a restrained, laid-back solo style. And self-possession, of an absence of conflict are commonly understood in both African and African American contexts well.Expressions such as, Dont let it blow your cool, later, chill out, and the use of chill as a characterization of inner contentment or restful repose all have their origins infract American Vernacular English. [14] When the air in the smoke-filled nightclubs of that era became unbeatable, windows and doors were opened to allow some cool air in from the outside to help clear away the suffocating air. By analogy, the slow and smooth Jazz style that was typical for that late-night scene came to be called 5] Marlene Kim Connors connects cool and the post-war African-American experience in her kook What is Cool? Understanding Black Manhood in America. Connors writes that cool is the silent and knowing rejection of racist oppression, a self-dignified expression of masculinity developed by black men denied mainstream expressions of manhood. She writes that mainstream per ception of cool is narrow and distorted, with cool often perceived merely as style or arrogance, rather than a way to achieve respect. [16] Designer Christian Laconic has said that . .. The history of cool in America is the history of African-American culture . 17] Cool pose Malcolm X embodied essential elements of cool . [18] Cool, though an amorphous quality-?more mystique than material-?is a pervasive element in urban black male culture. [18] Majors and Billion address what they term cool pose in their study and argue that it helps Black men counter stress caused by social oppression, rejection and racism. They also contend that it furnishes the black male with a sense of control, strength, confidence and stability and helps him deal with the closed doors and negative messages of the generalized other. They also believe that attaining black manhood is filled with pitfalls of discrimination, negative self-image, guilt, shame and fear. 19] Cool pose may be a factor in discrimination in education contributing to the achievement gaps in test scores. In a 2004 study, researchers found that teachers perceived students with African American culture- related movement styles, referred to as the cool pose, as lower in achievement, higher in aggression, and more likely to need special education services than students with standard movement styles, irrespective of race or other academic indicators. 20] The issue of stereotyping and discrimination with respect to cool pose raises complex questions of assimilation and accommodation of different ultra values. Jason W. Osborne identifies cool pose as one of the factors in black underachievement. [21] Robin D. G. Kelley criticizes calls for assimilation and sublimation of black culture, including cool pose. He argues that media and academics have unfairly demonic these aspects of black culture while, at the same time, through their sustained fascination with blacks as exotic others, appropriated aspects of cool pose into the broader popular culture. 22] George Elliott Clarke writes that Malcolm X, like Miles Davis, embodies essential elements of cool. As n icon, Malcolm X inspires a complex mixture of both fear and fascination in broader American culture, much like cool pose itself. [18] East Asia Main article: Cool Japan In Japan, synonyms of cool could be Ski and SSI. These are traditional commoners aesthetics of Japan to samurai, but this is historically inaccurate. In fact, samurai from the countryside have often been the target of ridicule by the commoner in the civilized Eddo in many art forms including Aragua, a form of comical story telling.Some argue that the ethic of the Samurai caste in Japan, warrior castes in India and East Asia all resemble cool. [l] The samurai-themed works of film director Kara Sarasota are among the most praised of the genre, influencing many filmmakers across the world with his techniques and storytelling. Notable works of his include The Seven Samurai, Yogi, and The Hidden Fortress. The latter was one of the primary inspirations for George Lacunas Star Wars, which also borrows a number of aspects from the samurai, for example the Jed Knights of the series.Samurai have been presented as cool in many modern Japanese movies such as Samurai Fiction, Shamuses,[23] and which was appropriated in American ivies such as Ghost Dog[25] and The Last Samurai[26] In The Art of War, a Chinese military treatise written during t he 6th century BC, general Sun TTS, a member of the landless Chinese aristocracy, wrote in Chapter XII: Profiting by their panic, we shall exterminate them completely; this will cool the Kings courage and cover us with glory, besides ensuring the success of our mission.Proof. Paul Wally considers Tokyo one of the worlds capitals of cool. Asian countries have developed a tradition on their own to explore types of modern cool or ambiguous aesthetics. In a Time Asia article The Birth of Cool author Hannah Beech describes Asian cool as a revolution in taste led by style gurus who are redefining Chinese craftsmanship in everything from architecture and film to clothing and cuisine and as a modern aesthetic inspired both by a Mining-era minimalism and a strenuous attention to detail. 27] Paul Wally, professor of Human Geography at the University of Leeds, considers Tokyo along with New York, London and Paris to be one of the worlds capitals of and the Washington Post called Tokyo Japans Empire of Cool and Japan the coolest nation on Earth. Analysts are marveling at the breadth of a recent explosion in cultural exports, and many argue that the international embrace of Japans pop culture, film, food, style and arts is second only to that of the United States. B usiness leaders and government officials are now referring to Japans gross national cool as a new engine for economic growth and societal buoyancy. 29] The term gross national cool was coined by Journalist Douglas McGraw. In a June/July 2002 article in Foreign Policy magazine,[30] he argued that as Japans economic Juggernaut took a wrong turn into a ten-year slump, and tit military power made impossible by a pacifist constitution, the nation had quietly emerged as a cultural powerhouse: From pop music to consumer electronics, architecture to fashion, and food to art, Japan has far greater cultural influence now than it did in the sass, when it was an economic superpower. [31] The notion of Asian cool applied to Asian consumer electronics is borrowed from the cultural media theorist Eric Mclean who described cool or cold media as stimulating participants to complete additive or visual media content, in sharp contrast to hot Edie that degrades the viewer to a merely passive or non-interactive receiver.Europe Mona Lisa, or La Giaconda (La Cocooned), by Leonardo dad Vinci experimentations, an aristocratic Aristocratic cool, known as supersaturate, has existed in Europe for centuries, particularly when re lating to frank amorality and love or illicit pleasures behind closed doors;[l] Repeals Portrait of Balderdash Castigation and Leonardo dad Vines Mona Lisa are classic examples of supersaturate. [32] The supersaturate of the Mona Lisa is seen in both her smile and the positioning of her hands.

Explore Antarcticas Hidden Lake Vostok

Explore Antarcticas Hidden Lake Vostok One of the largest lakes on planet Earth is an extreme environment hidden beneath a thick glacier near the South Pole. Its called Lake Vostok, buried beneath nearly four kilometers of ice on Antarctica. This frigid environment has been hidden from sunlight and Earths atmosphere for millions of years. From that description, it sounds like the lake would be an icy trap devoid of life. Yet, despite its hidden location and terribly inhospitable environment, Lake Vostok teems with thousands of unique organisms. They range from tiny microbes to fungi and bacteria, making Lake Vostok a fascinating case study in how life survives in hostile temperatures and high pressure. Finding Lake Vostok The existence of this sub-glacial lake took the world by surprise. It was first found by an aerial photographer from Russia who noticed a large smooth impression near the South Pole in East Antarctica. Followup radar scans in the 1990s confirmed that something was buried under the ice. The newly discovered lake turned out to be quite large: 230 kilometers (143 miles long) and 50 km (31 miles) wide. From its surface to the bottom, it is 800 meters (2,600) feet deep, buried under miles of ice. Lake Vostok and Its Water There are no subterranean or sub-glacial rivers feeding Lake Vostok. Scientists have determined that its sole source of water is melted ice from the ice sheet that hides the lake. Theres also no way for its water to escape, making Vostok a breeding ground for underwater life. Advanced mapping of the lake, using remote sensing instruments, radar, and other geologic research tools, show that the lake sits on a ridge, which may be harboring heat in a hydrothermal vent system. That geothermal heat (generated by molten rock beneath the surface) and the pressure of the ice on top of the lake keep the water at a constant temperature. The Zoology of Lake Vostok When Russian scientists drilled cores of ice out from above the lake to study the gases and ices laid down during different periods of Earths climate, they brought samples of frozen lake water up for study. Thats when the life forms of Lake Vostok were first discovered. The fact that these organisms exist in the lake water, which, at -3 ° C, is somehow not frozen solid, raises questions about the environment in, around, and under the lake. How do these organisms survive in these temperatures? Why hasnt the lake frozen over? Scientists have now studied the lakes water for decades. In the 1990s, they began to find microbes there, along with other types of miniature life, including fungi (mushroom-type life), eukaryotes (the first organisms with true nuclei), and assorted multicellular life. Now, it appears that more than 3,500 species live in the lakes water, in its slushy surface, and in its frozen muddy bottom. Without sunlight, Lake Vostoks living community of organisms (called extremophiles, because they thrive in extreme conditions), rely on chemicals in rocks and heat from the geothermal systems to survive. This isnt terribly different from other such life forms found elsewhere on Earth. In fact, planetary scientists suspect that such organisms could thrive very easily in extreme conditions on icy worlds in the solar system. The DNA of Lake Vostoks Life Advanced DNA studies of the Vostokians indicate that these extremophiles are typical of both freshwater and saltwater environments and they somehow find a way to live in the cold waters. Interestingly, while the Vostok life forms are thriving on chemical food, they themselves are identical to bacteria that live inside of fish, lobsters, crabs, and some types of worms. So, while the Lake Vostok life forms may be isolated now, they are clearly connected to other forms of life on Earth. They also make a good population of organisms to study, as scientists ponder whether or not similar life exists elsewhere in the solar system, particularly in the oceans beneath the icy surface of Jupiters moon, Europa. Lake Vostok is named for Vostok Station, commemorating a Russian sloop used by Admiral Fabian von Bellingshausen, who sailed on voyages to discover Antartica. The word means east in Russian. Since its discovery, scientists have been surveying the under-ice landscape of the lake and the surrounding region. Two more lakes have been found, and that now raises the question about connections between these otherwise-hidden bodies of water. In addition, scientists are still debating the history of the lake, which appears to have formed at least 15 million years ago and was covered over by thick blankets of ice. The surface of Antarctica above the lake routinely experiences very cold weather, with temperatures dipping down to -89 ° C. The biology of the lake continues to be a major source of research, with scientists in the U.S., Russia, and Europe, studying the water and its organisms closely to understand their evolutionary and biological processes. Continued drilling poses a risk to the ecosystem of the lake since contaminants such as antifreeze will harm the organisms of the lake. Several alternatives are being examined, including hot-water drilling, which may be somewhat safer, but it  still poses a danger to lake life.

Hum/130 Final

The Hsi Lai Temple sits on 15 acres of land and has a floor area of 102,432 sq. ft. nd is located at 3456 Glenmark Drive, Hacienda Heights CA 91745. The architecture when you first drive up is mind blowing and beautiful. The architecture stays true to the traditional styles of buildings, gardens, and statuary of the ancient Chinese monasteries. They started the planning and building of the temple in 1978 and finished the building ten years later in 1988. Hsi Lai means â€Å"coming west† and signifies the dedication of the Fo Guang Shan Buddhist Order to spreading the teachings of the Buddha. Fo Guang Shan is the largest monastery and covers over 370 acres. When you walk up the first set of steps you come to what they call the gate. On the top part of the sign it says Hsi Lai Temple which again means â€Å"coming west† and then on the four pillars it says the four universal vows, which are â€Å"to save all sentient beings, to eradicate all worries, to study the boundless Dharma, and to attain supreme Buddhahood. † After you walk up the steps from the lower parking lot where the gate is you walk up more steps to the upper parking lot and then from their you walk up more steps to what they call the Bodhisattva Hall. Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings that made a vow to selflessly serve others with loving-kindness and compassion and are committed to liberating all beings from suffering. It is said that each one of the bodhisattvas represents a virtuous quality essential to all Buddhists. When talking about the bodhisattvas they made a point to make sure that we understood that when we saw that people were bowing to them that they were not bowing to an idol, but rather a sign of showing respect and seeking their guidance to develop the virtuous qualities they represent. Bowing also shows our own humility and the curbing of our ego. There are five bodhisattvas are: Samantabhadra Bodhisattva which is symbolic of great practice, and helping us achieve more discipline in our daily life, Ksitigarbha Bodhisattva which was known for his great vow to help all beings in hell and would not stop till hell was emptied of all beings, Maitreya Bodhisattva is the future Buddha and is the symbol of great benevolence and is often referred to as Happy Buddah, Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva which symbolizes the perfection and loving-kindness, and Manjusri Bodhisattva which is known for great wisdom which empowers one to distinguish universal morality from wrongdoing. Underneath the five bodhisattva are engraved Chinese characters from the Diamond Sutra. Next to the Heart Sutra the Diamond Sutra is the most widely read of the Mahaprajnaparamita Sutra, and is highly valued among sects in Chan Buddhism. While I was at the His Lai Temple I found that they have an information where you can go on two different types of tours of their temple: the first being a self-guided audio tour where they give you a cd player and it gives you valuable information about the temple and all its rooms and buildings as well as the gardens and information on the statues that are found throughout the temple, The second type of tour they offer is with a docent who is more than willing to answer any questions that may come up during the tour, while they inform you about everything within the temple. The two gardens I was able to see within the temple was: the first being the Arhat Garden where the eighteen arhats are seated. The Arhats have realized the truth of no-self and that all is a composite of the five aggregates dependant on other phenomena originally empty and subject to impermanence. It is said that the eighteen Arharts were able to overcome the difilements of greed, anger, and ignorance. The eighteen Arhats are: Cudapanthaka which is the door watching arhat, Jivaka which is the heart exposing arhat, Vajraputra which is the persuading arhat, Subinda which is the pagoda holding arhat, Panthaka which is the arhat with stretched arms, Kalika which is the dust cleaning arhat, Bhadra which is the arhat that crossed the river, Pindola which is the arhat with long eyebrows, Nakula which is the silently seated arhat, Ajita which is the arhat riding the deer, Maitreya which is the tiger taming arhat, Angaja which is the arhat with a sack, Vananasim which is the arhat under the banana tree, Rahula which is the arhat in deep conversation, Manakassapa which the dragon subduing arhat, Kanakabharadavaja which is the arhat holding the alms bowl, Nagasena which is the ear cleaning arhat, and Kanakavatsa which is the jolly arhat. The second garden is the Avalokitesvara Garden. Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva is seated on a giant rock with both her attendants, Shanci and Longnu who are stan ding beside her. Surrounding the pond are the four Deva Kings: Virudhaka of the Southern Kingdom which is holding the sword, Virupaksa of the Western Kingdom which is holding the dragon, Dhanada of the Northern Kingdom which is holding the umbrella, and the Dhrtarastra of the Eastern Kingdom which is holding a sitar. The four Deva Kings are revered as guardians who protect devout sentient beings from being harmed by unwholesome elements. Standing around the four Deva Kings are the four Dragon Kings of the Four Seas. The flowing water in the garden is symbolic of the Dharma water flowing everywhere to purify people’s minds. Although the Buddhist love informing people of their religion and teaching you about their beliefs. They are really not very forth coming when it comes to helping someone who is there for a school assignment. I was asked by the individual to leave his name out and was further informed that they do not normally do this kind of interview. When asked about the holidays and traditions he said the most important holiday is Wesak Day which comes in May on the day of the full moon. As for traditions he said that it all depends on the form of Buddhism tradition that you followed. When asked how has his life has been shaped by the Buddhism religion he said that it has made him a more understanding person to what he called the true nature of life. When asked what the biggest challenge is to the Buddhist religion he said that with all beliefs the biggest challenge is changing you. He has been practicing Buddhism since he was born and was taught by monks and other teachers about the Buddhist religion. When asked if there were any dietary restrictions, he did not come out and say that you had to be vegan but stated that it was more wholesome to be vegan. During our interview I found that it was real simple to become a Buddhist and that all you really have to do is follow the teachings. After that question he seemed to be in a real hurry to end the interview but I thanked him for his time and let him know that what I was able to get answered was very helpful. When it came to compairing this religion to another I chose Christianity, not because it was the easier to compare because I found them to have very obvious differences. In Christianity when you become a Christian you accept God into your heart as Lord and Savior and then are baptized as a symbol of the washing of your sins. When you become a Buddhist you just start following the teachings of the Buddha. The other difference that stood out to me was that Christians believe in a heaven and hell and Buddhist believe that hell is only in the mind. Christians believe that when you die you go to heaven to be with your Lord and Savior, Buddhist believe that when you are done with this life you are reincarnated in the next life. I found this religion to be incredibly interesting as well as beautiful. This religion is all about selflessness, which I found in this day and age to be comforting. In order to become a Buddhists you, you are told to give up all your worldly possessions. Today, everything is about worldly possessions from the cell phone that they have the designer clothes they own, to the car that they drive. When the subject of material possessions is brought up it starts making you think about what is really important in your life and how much thought you actually put into material possessions. I have found that people say that their family and friends are important, but if someone were to ask them to give up these possessions what do you think they would say? These people would tell you that you were out of your mind and then proceed to give you every excuse under the sun on why they could not do this. I believe that it takes an amazing person to be able to put someone else’s life before their own and to truly be devoted unconditionally. As I watched the monks interact with people throughout the times I was there it seemed like they were truly at peace and seemed like they had it all figured out when it came to life. When I first started the assignment I thought that it was going to be stuffy and that I would have to deal with someone who did not want to truly be in the place of having to help someone with a school paper. I found that to be completely false and actually found that not only the monks were willing to answer questions, but all the staff members were happy to answer whatever questions that anybody came up with. At the end of this assignment I found that Buddhism not only left you with such a serine feeling not only while you were in the temple but when you left it made you feel like you could accomplish anything if you just believed. They believe that the only way to truly achieve happiness is by giving up yourself and start paying more attention to others. References: An Introduction to Buddhism. (2000). Retrieved from http://webspace. ship. edu/cgboer/buddhaintro. html Religious Tolerance. (2011). Retrieved from http://www. religioustolerance. org/buddhism. htm buddhanet. (2013). Retrieved from https://ecampus. phoenix. edu/secure/aapd/cwe/citation_generator/web_01_01. asp

Challenges of Information Technology Research Paper

Challenges of Information Technology - Research Paper Example Moreover, data management with enhanced high-tech security is an expensive undertaking. Network management in the organizational setting experiences both the positive and negative aspects of improved technology. Improved networks have made communication efficient and effective in and out of the organizational setting (Kuhn, 2008). Employees have been quick to exploit this realization, resulting in network management challenges. Use of smartphones and other devices on company networks have increased network usage costs, necessitated time to time maintenance, and threatened network security. To address these challenges, a company would need to have its employees subscribe to its network, or limit its network usage on personal smartphones and other devices. The company can also allow its employees to use their personal devices on its network, with a requirement to meet maintenance fees from time to time. Finally, where network security is threatened, administrative rights should be used to monitor and control company network usage by employees (Klein,

My Room Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

My Room - Essay Example My closet is well arranged and the used clothes are in one basket case and not littered all over the place. Â  My bathroom is clean and my personal and grooming materials are also nicely kept in a drawer. Â  Visitors also have hard time guessing whether it is a room of a boy or a girl. Â  It can be a room of a girl because it is clean and tidy but it could be also a room of a boy because it has sports equipments in my room. Â  I have football helmet, basketball, baseball and other sports gear displayed in a cabinet. Â  My study table is also obviously a student’s table because it is made of sturdy wood with just books and other study materials on it but is not gender oriented. Â  I also have a huge TV and speakers in my room that plays my favorite movies and music which could be either for a boy or a girl. Â  It is also difficult to tell whether my room is for adults or for children. Â  In addition to sports gears, my room also has toys, mannequins of cartoon character s and game boards. Â  But the books that I have will also tell that it is for adult because it has history books, hobby books and school books. My room is unusual because I fill my room with the things that I love and not because how people think a room should be. Â  It is my favorite place in the house. Â  It is the place where I study, rest or to enjoy my favorite movies or music. Â  It is also the place where I reflect about things because it feels very comfortable in there.

Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s “The Yellow Wallpaper” Essay Example for Free

Charlotte Perkins Gilman’s â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† Essay Charlotte Perkins Gilman wrote â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† in the late 1800’s while being treating by the very trusted Weir Mitchell. During this time women were commonly admitted into the care of doctors by their husbands without their given consent. At this time there was very little research concerning Post- Partum Depression. According to the A.D.A.M Medical Encyclopedia, Post-Partum is moderate to extreme depression women may experience after giving birth. The symptoms include fearfulness, restlessness, and anxiety- all of which are displayed by Jane in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper. † Gilman was advised by Dr. Mitchell to stop writing and rest, only partaking in â€Å"household† activities. She was not to visit with friends or go outside much. Contesting to these rules, Gilman ended treatment with Mitchell and wrote â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† with the hopes of shedding much needed light on the ineffectiveness of his strategies. The mental condition of many women often worsened due the general population’s lack of consideration involving a woman’s outspoken opinion involving the betterment of her own health. Carol Kessler writes in â€Å"Consider Her Ways: The Cultural Work of Charlotte Perkins Gilmans Pragmatopian Stories, 1908-1913,† â€Å"The utopian fiction of Charlotte Perkins Gilman takes on as its cultural work the demonstration that women are not confined to one traditional mode of beingwife/motherhoodbut can fill as varied social roles as can male counterparts† (126). Kessler is stating Gilman’s writing is not only a statement against the mental health practices concerning women, but also includes other issues that were dominated by a patriarchal society. Denise D. Knight suggests in her essay â€Å"I Am Getting Angry Enough to do Something Desperate,† that Jane’s behavior at the end is â€Å"an expression of the tremendous rage she feels toward her husband, John† (78). This statement is evidence suggesting that women were well aware of the need for a change involving these matters. Gilman uses the yellow wallpaper to symbolize the psychological, sexual and creative oppression women experienced during Gilman’s contemporary times. Jane’s â€Å"condition† is revealed to the reader at the beginning of the story. Jane has just arrived at the â€Å"vacation† home and is writing secretly since John forbids it. She writes of John, â€Å"You see, he does not believe I am sick!† (Gilman 173). This quote indicates to the audience that Jane’s voice is of no importance next to John’s. Jane continues to voice her opinion about her illness and what she believes could cure her. John blatantly ignores any suggestions she may have concerning her own health, appearing heartless and cold. This is very clear when Jane initially voices dislike for the room with the yellow wallpaper, in which she is assigned to stay. Jane writes, â€Å"I don’t like our room one bit. I wanted one downstairs that opened on the piazza †¦but John would not hear of it!† (Gilman 174). Gilman allows the audience a glimpse at the symbolism of the wallpaper at this point. Jane mentions her dislike of the room with the yellow wallpaper as soon as she is introduced to it. Upon bringing this discomfort to John’s attention she is sufficed with a promise to replace it. However, John later breaks his promise with the reasoning that they will only be there three months. The creeping feeling Jane experiences concerning the wallpaper symbolizes the mental instability she feels looming over her. John convinces Jane there is nothing wrong with the room and refuses to move her even though she requests he do so. When Jane persists she writes of his response to her, â€Å"But John says if I feel so, I shall neglect proper self-control; so I take pains to control myself† (Gilman 174). Jane is forced to h ide her feelings and worsening condition, as well as her writing. This interaction between the two characters demonstrates how many women during this time period were not to have opinions or preferences. This scene displays the lack of self-expression and freedom women encountered. Creativity in women was not widely accepted in Gilman’s society and was often deemed improbable. In one of Jane’s entries she describes, â€Å"There comes John, and I must put this away he hates to have me write a word† (Gilman 175). This sentence is powerful because the written word is often more powerful than the spoken word. Women were rarely given the luxury of speaking freely, much less writing freely. John’s reluctance to allow Jane to write illustrates the narrow minded ideals men had concerning women. In â€Å"Why I Wrote the Yellow Wallpaper,† Gilman writes that Dr. Mitchell, â€Å" concluded there was nothing much the matter with me, and sent me home with solemn advice to live as domestic a life as far as possible, to have bu t two hours intellectual life a day, and never to touch pen, brush or pencil again as long as I lived’†(51). Both Gilman and Jane were creative women that used writing as therapy to express what others around them could not understand. Jane’s journal and her writing symbolize the creative talents and intelligence many women were capable of but were forced to conceal. Gilman contradicts the idea of women being married to make great â€Å"mothers† with the statement, â€Å"And yet I cannot be with him† (Gilman 177). Jane is referring to her infant son. The possibility that a woman could want more from life other than to marry and have children was an almost impossible notion at the time. In â€Å"Gilmans The Yellow Wallpaper: A Centenary† Linda Wagner- Martin writes, â€Å"Of these many conflicts inherent in womens trying to lead acceptable female lives, perhaps the most troublesome is that of motherhood, its attendant responsibilities, and its almost inevitable loss of self-identity† (52). The A.D.A.M Medical Encyclopedia suggests that a common cause of Pos t-Partum Depression in women is the decreasing amount of time they have to themselves after having a child. Women of brighter minds were often misplaced in this type of society. Many artists feel an undeniable obligation to their work, often taking time away from their families. It was impossible for artistic women to prosper when their prime purpose in life was to marry and have children. Knight writes, â€Å"Gilman demonstrates how stifling the cult of domesticity was for intelligent women† (78). Jennie, Jane’s caretaker, represents this idea. Jane writes of Jennie, â€Å"She is a perfect and enthusiastic housekeeper, and hopes for no better profession† (Gilman 178). Jennie’s characteristics and tendency to stay out of Jane’s business resembles a fear felt by many women. While it was common for many intelligent women to become depressed due to creative and psychological oppression, fear often quieted any desires for change. It was widely understood that any woman who tried to live otherwise would just as easily end up in Jane’s predicament. Martin writes of the matter, â€Å" The point, obviously, is that society expects women to be fulfilled through motherhood, and that women who question their roles as mothers, who complain or are angry about those roles, are suspect if not beyond human comprehension† (63). In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† Jane’s behavior often reflects this idea that women longed for the opportunity to choose their life occupation, rather than being assigned it. Sexual oppression of women is also touched on in this piece. John often goes away for a work and even when he visits, there is minimal physical contact between him and Jane. Judith A. Allen writes in â€Å"Reconfiguring Vice: Charlotte Perkins Gilman, Prostitution, and Frontier Sexual Contracts,† â€Å"Gilman shared in a common, international, late nineteenth-century feminist critique of marriage and of other sexual economic contracts† (173). Gilman’s very opinionated statements regarding women’s freedoms clearly extended to their sexual needs as well as emotional needs. While it was often expected for women to stay behind and tend to the children while the men were away at work, it was often overlooked how these physical absences affected them. It was socially acceptable for a man to appease his sexual appetite with other women while he was away, but not for his wife to do the same with other men. This was taxing on many women. When John is visiting Jane one night, he simply scoops her up and takes her to bed, where he reads to her until she is tired and ready for bed. Jane appears to be too ill to confront her sexual desires like many women of the time. Her relationship described with John is surfaced. Since there is a lack of a physical relationship between the two, there appears to be no relationship at all. This clarifies the belief that women were married off to produce children and please their husbands. Once Jane begins taking notice of the wallpaper itself, the tone of the story takes a dive. While the tone of the story begins somewhat light hearted and seemingly harmless, there is still a hint of foreshadowing. It is when Jane becomes obsessed the audience becomes aware of how terrible her condition truly is. It is almost used as a mockery of John’s ignorance throughout the entire story. The narrator writes, â€Å"There are things in that paper that nobody knows about but me, or ever willâ €  (Gilman180). This is when Jane is realizing the figure in the wallpaper in fact is a woman and she appears to be behind bars. The symbolism here is that no one can understand how Jane is feeling, including the other women around her. As time goes on John tells Jane things such as, â€Å"You are gaining flesh and color,† and â€Å"I feel much easier about you† (Gilman181). Rather than asking Jane how she feels, he is telling her. The irony is Jane’s willingness to accept being told how to act, feel, and live. Based on the mockery provided by the narrator, John does not truly understand what Jane needs, considering he, like everyone else involved, does not view women as people capable of reasoning and complex feelings. This idea was prevalent to the society throughout that time period. The phrase â€Å"dear John† is mentioned throughout the story, indicating the importance of John to Jane. As Jane’s condition and obsession with the wallpaper worsen, her strength d ecreases as well. She is forced increasingly rely on others, including John. She writes of John, â€Å"Dear John! He loves me very dearly and hates to have me sick† (Gilman 180). The irony is how little of importance Jane appears to have in John’s life. He has a routine written for Jennie and Jane to follow throughout the day while he’s away. One of the nights he is visiting, Jane writes, â€Å"He said I was his darling and his comfort and all he had† (Gilman 180). These words have an empty meaning. If Jane were the only thing John had, he would have paid more attention to her and realized she was not getting better in the least. This supports the then popular belief that women would be content with simply being told what they want to hear. In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper,† there are statements made against the male physicians that were so highly admired among communities during Gilman’s time. Jane writes, â€Å"John is a physician and perhaps that is one reaso n I do not get well faster† (Gilman 173). Jane is admitting that a woman’s duty to submit to her husband gets in the way of her need to be persistent concerning her health. This observation is ironic and bold. It argues the mockery in the situation. John, as a doctor, is held up to such high standards, yet he has no idea what is really going on with this woman. The story is ridiculing society’s idea of â€Å"intelligence.† John makes the mistake of treating Jane as if something is wrong with her. However, the humor is in the doctors’ inability to figure out that women are simply composed of the same emotional capabilities as men. It is also necessary to pay special to attention the symbolism of name choice in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† John and Jane can allude to â€Å"Jane Doe† and â€Å"John Doe.† If this is the case, both could be identified as of no particular importance to the audience. A Jane or John Doe are unidentified people. Gilman did not feel the need to give the se characters any specific names that would identify them with a particular characteristic or trait. Their situation is unidentified, and their situation was very common for that time. John’s disregard for Jane’s claims of her slow descent into a worsening mental condition was a common practice for doctors regarding women. Often when a woman needed or wanted something, she had no other choice but to acquire the assistance of her husband. In the instance of Jane needing alternative means of medical care, her only hope would have been John. Naturally John did not listen to her protests. Gilman is stating that both men and women should have an equal say in marriage. Kessler writes, â€Å"The ‘partnership’ society that Eisler defines seems already to have been present in the pragmatopian imagination of Charlotte Perkins Gilman as revealed in her turn-of-the-century fiction, especially the short stories: the alternative or partner-oriented gender roles she depicts could be realized or attained then or in the present-day society that we know† (126). There were also many marriages lacking the understanding John clearly does not display. This coincides with the idea that many women who were married to many men at that time experienced the oppression Jane feels and were met with the same ignorance John displays. At the end of the story Jane writes, â€Å"For outside you have to creep on the ground, and everything is green instead of yellow† (Gilman 188). This has a childlike feel to it. Earlier in the story, when Jane is trying to talk to John about how she is feeling he replies with, â€Å"What is it, little girl?† (Gilman 181). The last scene of the story describes Jane as this crazy woman, but it has her creeping around the ground like a child. In â€Å"Environment as Psychopathological Symbolism in The Yellow Wallpaper,’† Loralee MacPikew writes, â€Å"The fact that the narrators prison-room is a nursery indicates her status in society. The woman is legally a child; socially, economically, and philo sophically she must be led by an adulther husband† (286). One day when Jane is stuck in her room alone, she reverts to her childhood while staring at the wallpaper, giving a description of a vivid memory. She writes, â€Å"I never saw so much expression in an inanimate thing before, and we all know how much expression they have! I used to lie awake as a child and get more entertainment and terror out of blank walls and plain furniture than most children could find in a toy-store† (Gilman 177). These behaviors revert to the idea that even as children, females were facing emotional neglect. It also supports the idea Jane was often treated like children by their husbands, posing the question how could she be expected to be a â€Å"good† mother if she herself was not permitted to act like an adult. Gilman’s decision to make the wallpaper yellow as opposed to any other color is interesting. Yellow is often viewed as a neutral color concerning gender. This may be connected to Gilman’s outcry of the belief that women ar e inferior to men concerning creative, emotional, and intelligent capability. Once Jane begins to acknowledge the wallpaper, her descriptions of it become more detailed. She describes it, â€Å"looked at in one way, each breadth stands alone; the bloated curves and flourishes- a kind of â€Å"debased Romanesque† with delirium tremens- go waddling up and down in isolated columns of fatuity† (Gilman 179). The words â€Å"delirium tremens† (Gilman 179) indicate how the wallpaper concurs with Jane’s worsening condition. Colors have often been known to manipulate a person’s mood. Following this belief, yellow is known to promote communication. This is an ironic symbol, considering John did not listen to Jane in the least. There are many times he overlooks her feelings or statements. At the beginning of the story Jane claims to feel something strange about the house. When she brings this to John’s attention he says what she â€Å"felt was a draught, and shut the window† (Gilman 174). Clearly John’s inability to listen to Jane discourages her to speak of anything at all to him. In â€Å"Consider Her W ays,† Kessler writes, â€Å"By refusing to accept definitions of traditional male and female roles, and instead of offering clear alternatives to such mainstream notions, Gilman forces readers to question boundaries defining behavior assumed acceptable on the basis of gender† (126). This statement supports the notion that Gilman believed that both men and women should share all household responsibilities, including working and raising children. The satirical symbolism at the end of â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† is astounding. It does a great job of surprising and shocking the audience. It leaves this image imprinted of a crazy lady taking a bite out of a bed and creeping around her husband. Once Jane believes she is the lady inside the wallpaper, she writes, â€Å"and I don’t want to have anybody in, till John comes. I want to astonish him† (Gilman 187). At this point her anger is apparent. The narrator is clearly pointing fingers at who is to blame for her current predicament. She is comparable to a child throwing a tantrum. It’s almost as if Jane is assuming the behaviors of a role she has been given, which is no different than what she does from the beginning of the story. She does what she is told. However, John often refers to her as everything but a woman. Naturally this mentality was bound to catch on. Jane also had no other means of escape from her world. John refused to allow her to go anywhere. It was almost as if she were a child being grounded. When children are forced to stay inside they use their imaginations as entertainment. To do this is human nature, and Jane is no exception. There is also attention to be paid to the bars described in the wallpaper. Jane writes, â€Å"at night in any kind of light, in twilight, candlelight, lamplight, and worst of all by moonlight, it becomes bars!† (Gilman 182). The bars symbolize all the oppression felt by Jane. As the progression of Jane’s condition worsens, the appearance of the bars becomes more prominent. Once Jane discovers the bars, she notices the woman in the wallpaper, â€Å"The outside pattern, I mean, and the woman behind it is as plain as can be† (Gilman 182). This quote refers to the unawareness John and other men of the time displayed concerning women. Gilman is making a statement against how obvious it is that Jane knows what she needs more so than her husband. This scenario was common among many women during that time period. It is also an outcry against a woman’s inability to practice self-expression. Once Jane decides to try and help the woman escape from the wallpaper (and becomes the woman herself), she peels off all the paper so she cannot be put back. Once John gets into the room she says to him, â€Å"’I’ve got out at last,’ said I,† in spite of you and Jane! And I’ve pulled of most of the paper, so you can’t put me back!’† (Gilman 189). This statement could be interpreted as Gilman’s creative self being defiant against the rules set up by a patriarchal society. While this last scene can be understood as haunting and disturbing, it almost seems as if Jane is getting the last laugh in the end. Her husband who is â€Å"successfully† a physician has failed his own wife. Jane’s road to insanity was brought on by her husband’s â€Å"trusted† tactics. Shortly after the story was published, Weir Mitchell was forced to re-evaluate his tactics used on â€Å"mentally unstable† women. There were many patriarchal barriers facing women when â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† was written. Gilman does an extraordinary job of displaying the horrors that resulted from this complex and delicate subject. The image of a woman behind bars in yellow wallpaper could not be more appropriate to convey such an important message. This short story demonstrates the feeling of entrapment and misplacement many creative and intelligent women felt during Gilman’s time. The yellow wallpaper is a strong symbol of a declaration of independence, creativity, and self-expression in a society where such notions were much too often withheld from the female population.

Utilitarianism in Crime and Punishment Essay -- Crime Punishment Essay

Utilitarianism in Crime and Punishment      Ã‚  Ã‚   Raskolnikov's mathematical evaluation of the moral dilemma presented to him in Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment exemplifies the empirical view of utilitarianism.   Utilitarianism attempts to distinguish between right and wrong by measuring a decision based on its calculated worth.   Raskolnikov appears to employ the fundamentals of utilitarianism by pitting the negative consequences of murdering his old landlady against the positive benefits that her money would bestow onto society.   However, a true follower of utilitarianism would be outraged at Raskolnikov's claim that murdering the old woman can be considered morally right. Raskolnikov arbitrarily leaves out some necessary considerations in his moral "equation" that do not adhere to utilitarianism.   A utilitarian would argue that Raskolnikov has not reached an acceptable solution because he has not accurately solved the problem.   On the other hand, a non-utilitarian would reject even the notion of deliberating about the act of murder in such a mathematical manner.   He might contend that Raskolnikov's reasoning, and the entire theory of utilitarianism, cannot be used to judge morality because it rejects individual rights and contains no moral absolutes.      Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   A utilitarian bases his belief upon two principles:   the theory of right actions and the theory of value.   These two principles work together and serve as criteria for whether or not a utilitarian can deem an action morally right. First, the theory of right action argues that the morally right decision is the one whose consequences are at least as good as any other availa... ...    Gibson, A Boyce. The Religion of Dostoyevsky. Philadelphia: Westmenster Press, 1973. Monas, Sidney, trans. Crime and Punishment. By Fyodor Dostoyevsky. New York: Penguin, 1968.    Morsm, Gary Saul. "How to Read. Crime and Punishment." Commentary 1992 June, 93 (6):  Ã‚   49-53.    Rosenshield, Gary "The Realization of the Collective Self: The Birth of Religious Autobiography in Dostoevski's Zapiski iz Mertvogo Doma." Slavic Review 1991 Summer 50 (2): 317-27.    Panichas, George A. "The World of Dostoyevsky." Modern Age 22: 346-57    Mann, Robert. "Elijah the Prophet in Crime and Punishment." Canadian Slavonic Papers 1981 Sept 23 (3): 261-72.    Yancey, Phillip. "Be Ye Perfect, More or Less: Tolstoy, Dostoyevsky, and the impossible Sermon on the Mount." Christianity Today 17 July 1991: 38-41.

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards:

Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards: Motivational Theory Revisited labr_496 1.. 23 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Abstract. A model of job satisfaction integrating economic and work environment variables was developed and used for testing interactions between rewards and work environment hazards. Data came from a representative panel of Danish employees. Results showed that psychosocial work environment factors, like information about decisions concerning the work place, social support, and in? uence, have signi? cant impacts on the level of job satisfaction.Maximizing rewards did not compensate public employees to an extent that ameliorated the negative effects on job satisfaction of experiencing low levels of any of these factors whereas in? uence did not impact job satisfaction of private employees. 1. Introduction Although job satisfaction is not considered an economic variable in itself, several studies in a labour economic context have highlighted that low job satisf action is a determinant of resignations from the work place; see Akerlof et al. (1988), Blank and Diderichsen (1995), Clark et al. 1998), and Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). Other studies have shown an impact from job satisfaction on phenomena that are more dif? cult to observe directly, such as intention to leave the work place (Bockerman and Ilmakunnas, 2005), motivation and absenteeism (Keller, 1983; Tharenou, 1993), and counterproductive behaviour (Gottfredson and Holland, 1990). Work environment has been found to in? uence labour market outcomes in terms of early retirement (see Lund and Villadsen, 2005), employee long-term absence from work due to illness (see Benavides et al. 2001; Hemmingway et al. , 1997; Lund et al. , 2005), short-term sickness absence (see Munch-Hansen et al. , 2009), and productivity (see Cooper et al. , 1996). Within traditional economic theory, work environment factors have tended to be modelled as job attributes, seen as hazards at work for which compensating wage differentials are to be paid. The theory of compensating wage differentials goes as far back as Adam Smith’s book, Wealth of Nations, from 1776, where equalizing wage differentials adjust the net advantages of different jobs.This makes it possible to achieve general labour market equilibrium when work places, preferences, and technologies are heterogeneous. Rosen (1986) reviews the various studies on the area and ? nds evidence of compensating wage differentials especially for physical working conditions, like shift work, heavy, dirty, or dangerous work. Other studies ? nd no evidence of compensating wages differentials (see Ehrenberg and Smith, 1994) or, in cases where workers do receive compensating wages differences, that the compensation does not re? ct their true preferences (see Lanfranchi, 2002). Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal (author for correspondence), The National Research Centre for the Working Environment, Lerso Parkalle 105, 2100 Copenhag en, Denmark. E-mail: [email  protected] dk. LABOUR 25 (1) 1–23 (2011) DOI: 10. 1111/j. 1467-9914. 2010. 00496. x JEL J6, J28, J30, J31, J45, J81  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 9600 Garsington Rd. , Oxford OX4 2DQ, UK and 350 Main St. , Malden, MA 02148, USA. 2 Lea Sell — Bryan ClealAccording to the theory of compensating wages differentials, the equalization of total compensation is dependent on both perfect mobility of workers and perfect information for workers and ? rms. Both assumptions are questionable. Mobility may be, at least temporarily, limited by factors such as a high unemployment rate or family ties, restricting job choice to a speci? c mix of working hours, pay, or location. Likewise, full information regarding working conditions, especially when drawing in psychosocial work factors, cannot be known in advance, but will be experienced only in the actual work situation.Under these circumstances adverse working conditions can have an impact on the level of job satisfaction even if high wages are paid. The purpose of the present paper is to identify determinants of job satisfaction in a model that contains detailed information on both work environment and economic factors. Moreover, we wish to test if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in which there are no compensatory rewards.The results from the ? rst analysis are of interest because most previous studies on job satisfaction either do not include all economic variables of interest, and are cross-sectional studies not accounting for unobserved heterogeneity, or include only few work environment factors. The second analysis can supplement the theory of compensating wages differentials by introducing more detailed work environment measures and by testing the capability of rewards to compensate workers for hazards in the work environment to an extent that ameliorates the effects on job satisfaction.The work environment factors considered are all evidence-based health risks factors, thereby both long-term effects on work ability and health and short-term effects on employee satisfaction and motivation are considered. The data used in this study are a panel of a representative cohort of Danish employees at two points in time, 1995 and 2000. The data set consists of individual assessments of working conditions and socio-economic data for 3,412 employees (when omitting observations with missing response on any of the items analysed here). The data were collected by the National Institute of Occupational Health in Denmark. . Theoretical background Job satisfaction is not an absolute measure but merely an indicator for a range of job characteristics. Using Locke’s (1976) de? nition, job satisfaction is a positive emotional state resulting from the appraisal of oneâ€℠¢s job and it is worth recalling here that such subjective data are generally viewed with suspicion by economists. Freeman (1978) states that the principal problem in interpreting responses to such questions is that they depend not only on the objective circumstances in which an individual is situated, but also on one’s psychological state.Moreover, the level of job satisfaction may also be in? uenced by ability thus representing unobservable, stable characteristics of individuals. Earlier studies within organizational psychology have shown that the level of job satisfaction varies very little over time, suggesting that it does re? ect underlying stable personal dispositions (see Schneider and Dachler, 1978). This has been tested on a cohort of German employees by Dormann and Zapf (2001) in a review on the studies on the alleged stability of job satisfaction.The result was that after controlling for stable working conditions, the stability of job satisfaction diminishes to no nsigni? cance, indicating that an underlying dispositional in? uence on job satisfaction is not direct, but mediated by working conditions. This also suggests that the level of job satisfaction can be changed by organizational measures.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 3 A general and well-known model of job satisfaction was developed by Herzberg (see Herzberg et al. 1959). He found that some job factors could only cause dissatisfaction or short-lasting motivation whereas other factors could invoke long-lasting positive feelings towards the job. If job factors are in fact dual with regard to their effect on job satisfaction, the method used for examining job satisfaction should account for this. If only testing for positive or negative associations between the covariates and job satisfaction, information on the factors being only capable of causing either high job satisfaction or low job satisfa ction would most likely be lost.As for the effects of compensatory rewards, this may be essential and consequently separate analyses are undertaken here for the outcome being highly satis? ed with the job and the outcome being dissatis? ed with the job. Many of the earlier studies on job satisfaction have made an analytical distinction between the two genders as there consistently has been reported higher job satisfaction for women; see, for example, Sloane and Williams (2000) and Clark (1997). Where Sloane and Williams ? nd that the differences stem from men and women having different types of work, Clark ? ds that neither different jobs, their different work values, nor sample selection accounts for the gender satisfaction differential. Rather he proposes an explanation based on well-being relative to expectations. A man and a woman with the same jobs and levels of expectations would report identical levels of job satisfaction. But as women’s expectations are lower than men ’s due to having been more attached to work in the home, they will report higher job satisfaction than their male counterparts even given the same working conditions. This hypothesis is supported by the ? ding that the gender satisfaction differential disappears for the young, the higher educated, professionals and those in male-dominated work places. This can be related to the length of time women have had an established position at the labour market, an issue that has been further exploited in a paper by Kaiser (2005). Here Denmark, Finland, and the Netherlands are the only European countries that do not show signi? cant gender–job satisfaction differences. They argue that the gender–job satisfaction paradox fades out in the process of ‘modernizations’ of the labour market.This modernization is facilitated if the welfare state as in Scandinavia and, to a certain extent, the Netherlands supports equal opportunities for women and men by means of, fo r example, kindergartens and homes for the elderly people. A more recent topic within this line of economic literature is based on the theory that the public sector is likely to attract individuals with high intrinsic motivation to care about the recipients of public service or those who thrive on the social recognition they might receive for contributing to an important mission (Benabou and Tirole, 2006).And although the picture is not fully conclusive, studies have in fact shown that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards than employees within the private sector. They are prepared to work for a lower overall pay level than is the case for private-sector employees because they derive satisfaction from participating in the production of a good of high social value; see, for example, Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000). Ren (2010) points to that value congruence or organization and employees can strengthen the intrinsic motivation. He also investigates whether value congruence can impact the design of the organization and ? nds that value congruence is related to employee participation in decision making and autonomy as opposed to control. Apart from the above discussed differences in the incentive structures in the public and the private sector, there is also a difference in the gender distribution within the two sectors as women tend to be over-represented in the public as well as the non-pro? t sector. Narcy et al. 2008) investigates possible explanations for this and ? nds that the ‘feminization’ of the public sector can be explained by the fact that women obtain a higher wage gain from choosing this sector than men do, investigating, among other factors, the social objectives pursued by the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 4 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal public sector. Also ? exible working hours have seemed to attract women. The result in regard to wages was found for Greek data in Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007). In Denmark 63. per cent of the employees in the public sector are women whereas this ? gure for the private sector is only 35. 1 per cent (OECD, 1997). According to the previous discussion, a meaningful analytical distinction when studying job satisfaction is between the private and the public sector. Newer studies that have applied this distinction with good results are, for example, Demoussis and Giannakopoulos (2007) and Ghinetti (2007). They use Greek and Italian data, respectively, and the measures are on so-called ‘domain satisfactions’ representing different facets of the job, instead of a universal measure.Ghinetti examines differences in satisfaction between the private and the public sector in regard to six non-pecuniary job attributes. He ? nds that public and private employees are equally satis? ed on three of the items, that the publicly employed are more satis? ed on two items, and one item with mixed results. Using a division on sector, gender differences can be tested by means of interactions effects. In the present paper, we use a division on sector in combination with tests of gender interaction effects. An often discussed topic in relation to job satisfaction is wage.The general assumption is that higher wage increases job satisfaction, not necessarily because it actually makes you happier in the job, but because a higher wage increases overall utility by increasing total expenditure opportunities. Many studies apply a general job satisfaction measure, which makes it dif? cult to distinguish the two effects. Furthermore, not only absolute, but also relative wage is considered to be positively correlated to the level of job satisfaction. This is when using the wages of other workers having the same characteristics and type of job for comparison; see, for example, Clark (1996).In the present paper, wage is used as one type of reward along wi th recognition and future opportunities at the job. In order not to confuse the relationships between the three types of rewards, we use the absolute wage in the present analyses as opposed to relative wages. The job satisfaction measure applied is a general measure of job satisfaction. Other determinants of job satisfaction often applied in analyses performed within labour economic theory and thus also used in our analyses include education, job tenure, managerial position, the unemployment rate, and marital status and number of children.Tenure and having a leading position have nearly always been found to be positively related to job satisfaction (Clark, 1997). The relationships between job satisfaction, level of education, the unemployment rate, and wages are intertwined and convoluted. Education raises wages and thus job satisfaction. But education also raises expectations with respect to job content and thus the likelihood of experiencing job dissatisfaction. In addition, there is more opportunity for mobility between jobs in the low-wage job market due to fewer matching criteria for taking a job, increasing the likelihood of job satisfaction.Finally, a lower unemployment rate can raise job satisfaction through improved mobility (see Akerlof et al. , 1988). Where possible we use the unemployment rate within speci? c professions (60 per cent in the current sample), otherwise the average unemployment rate is used. Hours of work have been considered as a measure of the disutility of work whereas utility is increasing with increased leisure time. In Denmark, as well as in many other countries, working hours have to a great extent become a non-divisible good as a result of regulation.Moreover, long working hours can be evident both for workers having a very challenging job and for workers just having too much work, as shown by Kristensen et al. (2004). As a result we decided not to use the absolute number of working hours in our analyses and included ? exibili ty of working hours instead. Although work environment has been used extensively in earlier job satisfaction studies, the present article restricts its focus to factors where there is evidence of negative health outcomes.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing LtdJob Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 5 A widely used theory within psychosocial work environment research is the demand– control model, elaborated by Karasek (see Karasek and Theorell, 1990). Job demands encompass quantitative job demands, time pressure, and con? icting job demands whereas decision latitude in contrast is a measure of control and composed of level of job discretion and the degree of in? uence. Workers exposed to high demands and low control have an increased risk for a number of diseases, notably cardiovascular diseases.High job demands in association with low control have also been associated with diseases such as musculoskeletal disorders, psychiatric illne ss, gastrointestinal illness, cancer, suicide, sleeping problems, and diabetes (see Kristensen, 1996). Later studies (e. g. Johnson and Hall, 1988) have shown that a high level of social support can counteract the negative effects of high job strain. A more recent theory is the effort–reward imbalance model by Siegrist (1996). High effort in combination with low rewards has been shown to have an impact on stress, sudden cardiac death, and hypertension.In this model job demands are a composite measure of time pressure and other quantitative demands, similar to the demands of the demand–control model. Reward can be in the form of wages, recognition, and opportunities for personal development or career opportunities. In our analyses we integrate all three reward measures in testing if employees report the same level of job satisfaction when exposed to a hazardous work environment in which compensations are maximized, as compared with a non-hazardous work environment in wh ich there are no compensatory rewards.Job security and predictability are related to the conception of status control. Not having a high level of information on decisions that concern the work place is an invisible stressor that has been found to predict heart disease (see Iversen et al. , 1989). In the extensive Whitehall II study set-up in Britain in order to investigate the causes of the social gradient in morbidity and mortality, the impact of privatization on a former civil-servant department when job outcomes were not established was evaluated (see Stansfeld et al. , 1997).In the gap between the announcement of the privatization and the termination phase where the employees had gained more certainty about their future job status, there was an increase in the psychiatric morbidity compared with the morbidity in the period before the announcement of the privatization. Other psychosocial health factors included in the analyses in this paper are being exposed to aggression at the work place and role con? icts. Exposure to con? icts, teasing, or threats of violence can provoke stress, anxiety, and, in the long run, fatigue in the victims (see Hoegh, 2005).Role con? ict is a measure of con? icting demands and unclear responsibilities and is considered a source of chronic stress, also shown to have an impact on job satisfaction (Fisher and Gitelson, 1983). Physical job demands are included using a measure of the frequency of odd working positions, including having the back heavily bent forward with no support for hands or arms, twisted or bent body, hands lifted to shoulder height or higher, the neck heavily bent forward or squatting or kneeling (see Lund and Tsonka, 2003). Noise is measured on a dichotomous scale re? cting if workers are exposed to noise so high that one must raise his or her voice more than 75 per cent of the time in order to communicate with others. For a review of the effects of noise on mental health, see Stansfeld et al. (2000). 3. Method 3. 1 Elaboration of variables In this paper the wording of the question on job satisfaction is: ‘Are you satis? ed with your job? ’. The answers fall in four verbally labelled and ordered categories. Possible answers are:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 6 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Yes, indeed’, ‘To some extent’, ‘Not so much’, and ‘No or very seldom’. For analytical purposes, answers in the category ‘Yes, indeed’ de? ne the outcome high job satisfaction whereas answers in categories ‘Not so much’ and ‘No or very seldom’ de? ne being dissatis? ed with the job. In general the variables are entered in the model in their original form. However the variable representing high demands in combination with low control, as well as the scale for social support, is composed of several measures. Social support consists of a practical and a psychological dimension, both of which are assessed in the questionnaires.The scales differ slightly from 1995 to 2000 and we have therefore dichotomized in a way that makes them equivalent. Hence we only look at situations where the employee either always receives help, support, and encouragement or not. There are separate questions for social support from colleagues and from leaders or superiors. Not always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors is assigned the lowest level, always receiving support from either colleagues or superiors are the two intermediate levels, and always receiving support from both groups is the highest level.In order to measure demands and level of control, a variable that re? ects the demands in different occupations has been constructed. Demands are de? ned as being high if work demands attention and full concentration almost all of the time, if the pace of work is perceived to be very fast, or when con? icting or unclear job demands are experienced. L ow control is de? ned as a combination of limited in? uence on planning one’s own work and low job variation. 3. 2 Data and the population Data on work environment and health in the working population were obtained from the Danish Work Environment Cohort Study (DWECS) (see Burr et al. 2003). The panel started out with a simple random sample drawn from the central population register in 1990, consisting of people aged 18–59 years per 1 October 1990. People in this panel were interviewed in 1995, 2000, and 2005 and the panel is continuously adjusted for ageing and immigration. The 1990 sample consisted of 9,653 individuals of which 8,664 participated (90 per cent). Of these, 6,067 (70 per cent) were wages earners. The following 1995 sample consisted of 10,702 persons, of which 8,572 participated (80 per cent).Of the participants in 1995, 5,649 (65. 9 per cent) were wage earners, 6. 7 per cent were enterprise owners, and 27. 4 per cent were not in the job market. Of the 5 ,649 wage earners in 1995, 4,647 also participated in the survey in 2000 (82. 3 per cent). The population used for the analyses in this paper are the respondents who were wage earners in 1995 and who also participated in DWECS as wage earners in 2000, corresponding to 3,773 individuals. The sample only contains information about present job in 1995 and 2000, respectively, and on tenure in these jobs.Information on possible intervening unemployment spells is only obtainable when linking the data set to a register of social payment transfers that have not been within the scope of this paper. Job satisfaction has shown to be related to job change as in, for example, Kristensen and Westergaard-Nielsen (2004). As for job change in our population, a total of 1,128 individuals have changed work place in the period. When dividing this subsample on job satisfaction levels as reported in 1995, 49. 7 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom satis? ed with the job change work place d uring the 5-year period whereas only 32. per cent of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job have changed job by 2000. Moreover, as wage earners who had a low degree of job satisfaction in 1995 have had a higher  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 7 incentive to leave the work force completely or start their own enterprise by 2000, the ? nal sample may be biased. To estimate the size of this potential bias, all participants in 2000 (including unemployed and enterprise owners) are divided among the four categories of job satisfaction levels reported in 1995.The results are that 21 per cent of those who were not, or only very seldom, satis? ed are not in the work force in 2000. Of those who were highly or to some extent satis? ed with the job, only 14 per cent had left the work force. However, the total amount of dissatis? ed workers who have left the sample amounts to 58 perso ns and attrition should therefore not pose a serious threat to the reliability of results. After deducting observations with missing values on any of the analysed items, the cohort consisted of 3,412 individuals. See Table 1 for sample characteristics. 3. 3 Statistical analysesThe data resulting from measuring qualitative phenomena by the use of questionnaires are most often categorical, ordinally scaled data. This means that they are ordered, but with intervals that might be uneven. One example is measures of job satisfaction using a verbal rating scale, consisting of a discrete number of verbally described ordered categories. This type of data restricts the types of arithmetic operations that can be applied, which in turn limit the range of statistical methods suitable for the analysis. As noted earlier, another problem when analysing job satisfaction is that of unobserved heterogeneity.It causes problems because the regression model is based on the assumption that there is no cor relation between the explanatory variables and the error term. But as the error term captures the variation from potentially omitted variables such as ? xed personal traits that may in? uence the probability of a speci? c outcome on the job satisfaction variable, this type of model error is likely to occur in analyses of job satisfaction. A method to eliminate heterogeneity is the application of conditional likelihood in logistic regression, as shown by Chamberlain (1980) in the case of having a binary response variable.The principle applied here is that when using logistic regression with conditional likelihood and having more than one observation per object, the variables that do not change values are not used in the estimation. Unfortunately this also means that a variable like gender will be omitted from the estimation. The latter problem can be solved by either splitting up the analysis in two parts according to gender or by integrating gender effects as interaction effects, wh ich is the method adopted in this paper.As the scale on which job satisfaction is measured in the present analysis consists of four ordered categories with verbal ratings, ordinal comparability can be assumed and the response variable can be recoded to a binary variable without violating any assumptions. Conditional likelihood estimation is performed using the panel 1995–2000. Supplementary ordinary regressions are completed using the cross-sectional data from 2000. Predicted probabilities are generated from the cross-sectional data. Initially, correlation analysis using Kendall Tau was performed on all explanatory variables. The correlation coef? cient was below 0. 0 except between age and tenure, and between education in years and wage. Tenure is used as a substitute for age, as the sign of the correlation between age and job satisfaction also may depend on age (Clark et al. , 1998). Educational levels were dichotomized and tested in the model as with the gender interaction terms. The full model with variables given in Table 1 and Appendix A becomes:  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Age in years Mean Years of school Mean Std. deviation Professions Vocational training Marital status Cohabiting 39. 7 Public 13. 3 2. 57 34. 2 79. 3 35. 7 Private 995 12. 1 2. 19 53. 5  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 74. 7 80. 8 54. 4 12. 5 2. 36 40. 9 Private 2000 81. 9 33. 7 13. 7 2. 53 44. 7 Public Net month pay Mean, DKK. Std. deviation Tenure Mean Std. deviation Gender Male Female 64. 9 35. 1 7. 0 7. 52 10,891 4,909 Private Table 1. Summary of key demographic and economic variables in balanced panel (N = 3,412) 1995 36. 6 63. 4 8. 8 8. 10 9,932 4,102 Public 65. 0 35. 0 9. 0 8. 79 13,600 4,667 Private 2000 34. 5 65. 0 11. 4 9. 64 12,123 3,541 Public 8 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 9 JSij = ? i + ? marriedij + ? 2 Childrenij + ? 3High school ij + ? 4Short further educationij u + ? 5 Tenureij + ? 6 Leaderij + ? 7 unemployment rateij + ? 8 Noiseij + ? 9 Physical strainij + ? 10 Influenceij + ? 11High demand-low controlij + ? 12 Job securityij + ? 13 Informationij + ? 14 Role conflict ij + ? 15Social sup port ij + ? 16 Conflict at workij + ? 17 Flexible hoursij + ? 18 Logpay ij + ? 19 Job futurei + ? 20 Recognition leaderi + ? ij . The i subscript refers to different persons and j refers to different measurements for person i, Job satisfaction (JS) is the dependent variable, a the constant, b is the vector of the coef? ients of the explanatory variables, and eij is a random error term. Questionnaire answers on job future opportunities and recognition from leaders are only available for the 2000 cross-section. The estimation method is maximum likelihood and the statistical computer programs used were SAS 8. 2 and STATA 9. 0, the logit procedure and the clogit procedure. Results are presented as factor changes in odds, expre ssing the increase in the odds of being in the group having a high degree of job satisfaction, for a one point, or level, increase in the explanatory variable. 4. ResultsIn this section we present the empirical results based on four sets of analyses. (1) Preliminary regression analyses on gender differences. (2) Main results: Estimating the probability of the outcomes being highly satis? ed with the job and being dissatis? ed with the job using conditional likelihood estimation. (3) An ordinary logistic regression analysis using only data from 2000 with addition of recognition from leaders and future job opportunities to the model. This model is used for predicting the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when rewards are optimized and work environment factors are at unfavourable levels. 4) A fourth and last analysis has the purpose of validation of the question on job satisfaction and consists of a regression where job satisfaction as response variable is substitu ted by a question on the degree of motivation and engagement in one’s work. 4. 1 Preliminary analyses on gender differences Initially, tests for gender interaction effects are performed. For private-sector employees, social support shows both a signi? cant gender effect and a general effect on job satisfaction. For public-sector employees job security indicates a signi? ant gender effect and a general effect. In both cases being a woman increases the impact on the level of job satisfaction. The gender interaction effects are veri? ed when running separate regressions on genders still using the division on sectors. The results can be seen in Appendix B. Due to the loss of observations when using ? xed effects regressions these regressions are run on only the 2000 cross-section using ordinary logistic regression on the outcome being highly satis? ed. A few results turn out to be gender speci? : only for publicly employed men, having no education above high school level lowers t he probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position increases the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly. For publicly employed women only, the unemployment rate is signi? cantly and inversely related to the level of job satisfaction. Job security is signi? cant as suggested by the found interaction effects. For privately employed men and women, gender-speci? c effects are in? uence that increases the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal probability of high job satisfaction for men, job security that increases the likelihood of job satisfaction for women, and being exposed to aggression at the work place, which is only signi? cant for women. Moreover, the coef? cient of social support is larger for women than for men corresponding to the results of the gender analysis. In regard to wages, the effect is large and positive for both privately employed men and privately employed women but nonsigni? cant for both genders within the public sector.As discussed in the statistical analysis section multicollinarity existed between education in years and wage. Therefore educational levels are entered as separate variables to the model. Ultimately, only having no further education beyond high school and having a short further education were statistically signi? cant (p < 0. 05) and these levels are therefore kept in the model. 4. 2 Results using conditional likelihood on the combined panel of data from 1995 and 2000 The gender interaction effects found and the two variables representing educational level are now entered in the ? al model. The results are shown in Table 2. The left section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction and the right section of the table shows the results when estimating the probability of having a low level of job satisfaction, the latter in order to test for a duality in t he impacts on job satisfaction as discussed in Section 2. Looking ? rst at the results for the economic and demographic measures, the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category are reduced with one-? th for every additional child for private employees, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 077). This result is matched in the public sector, in the way that the odds of having a low level of job satisfaction triple for an additional child. For privatesector employees, having no more than a high school education, opposed to having an educational level above high school, nearly triples the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category and also reduces the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category, although the latter effect is only borderline signi? ant (p = 0. 063). Having a medium length or short further education nearly halves the odds of being highly satis? ed with one’s job. Educational level does not show any effects of sig ni? cance for public-sector employees. High tenure raises the odds of being in the low job satisfaction category for public-sector employees, a result not matched elsewhere. Within both sectors, the level of job satisfaction seems to be related to the size of the unemployment rate, and the scope of this relation is similar for private and public employees.The sizes of the odds indicate an 8. 3 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for private-sector employees and a 9 per cent decrease in the odds of being in the high satisfaction category per per cent increase in the unemployment rate for public-sector employees. In regard to occupational health factors, the public and the private sector have four factors in common: role con? cts nearly halves the odds of being in the high satisfaction category in both sectors, odd work positions decrease the odds of being in the high satisfaction category for private employees by one-third, and for public employees by nearly one-half. Increasing the level of information that concerns the work place raises the odds of being highly satis? ed by 71 per cent for privately employed and by 91 per cent for publicly employed workers. For each increase in the level of social support, the odds of being highly satis? ed increase by 58 per cent and 31 per cent, respectively. For public employees, increasing the level of in? ence increases the odds of being highly satis? ed with the job by 71 per cent, and having foreseeable job security above 12 months nearly doubles the odds of being in the high job satisfaction category. For private-sector  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 1. 061 0. 811(*) 2. 881* 0. 558* 1. 009 1. 349 0. 917* 0. 525* 0. 681* 1. 045 0. 965 1. 532 1. 709* 0. 537* 1. 576* 0. 973 1. 246* 1. 698(*) 0. 755* — 0. 674–1. 672 0. 643–1. 023 1. 342–6. 186 0. 359–0. 868 0. 97 8–1. 040 0. 707–2. 573 0. 876–0. 960 0. 303–0. 907 0. 514–0. 903 0. 849–1. 292 0. 446–2. 091 0. 904–2. 596 1. 380–2. 116 0. 398–0. 23 1. 257–1. 978 0. 555–1. 705 1. 103–1. 409 0. 990–2. 913 0. 575–0. 992 — CI 1. 310 1. 047 0. 497 0. 796 0. 974 0. 460 0. 910* 0. 739 0. 579* 1. 710* 0. 595 2. 042(*) 1. 906* 0. 525* 1. 309* 0. 936 1. 035 1. 386 — 0. 150* OR ? xed 0. 639–2. 682 0. 755–1. 452 0. 153–1. 618 0. 431–1. 472 0. 932–1. 019 0. 150–1. 417 0. 858–0. 965 0. 346–1. 576 0. 358–0. 935 1. 142–2. 559 0. 058–6. 084 0. 891–4. 680 1. 355–2. 681 0. 337–0. 817 1. 092–1. 569 0. 552–1. 589 0. 850–1. 260 0. 463–4. 154 — 0. 027–0. 825 CI Public (Reg. 2) 1. 379 0. 803 0. 062(*) 0. 414 1. 046 3. 378 1. 006 3. 843* 1. 238 1. 943* 4. 482* 3. 01 2* 2. 112* 2. 247(*) 1. 496* . 825 0. 913 1. 176 — — OR ? xed 0. 360–5. 274 0. 394–1. 639 0. 003–1. 157 0. 085–2. 022 0. 951–1. 150 0. 320–35. 729 0. 906–1. 116 1. 238–11. 926 0. 653–2. 347 1. 176–3. 212 1. 425–14. 091 1. 016–8. 933 1. 222–3. 650 0. 949–5. 320 1. 059–2. 114 0. 679–4. 902 0. 641–1. 300 0. 275–5. 038 — — CI Private (Reg. 3) b 0. 744 3. 396* 11. 731 2. 327 1. 195* 0. 061 1. 017 0. 358 1. 250 3. 186(*) 0. 727 0. 939 2. 052(*) 1. 152 1. 586(*) 4. 557(*) 0. 805 1. 766 — — OR ? xed 0. 140–3. 948 1. 049–10. 993 0. 469–293. 833 0. 383–14. 120 1. 025–1. 395 0. 0 0. 861–1. 202 0. 046–2. 809 0. 573–2. 724 0. 975–10. 409 0. 071–7. 497 0. 127–6. 940 0. 96–4. 699 0. 348–3. 819 0. 936–2. 689 0. 962–21. 598 0. 372à ¢â‚¬â€œ1. 740 0. 160–19. 521 — — CI Public (Reg. 4) Low job satisfactionc Dichotomous variables. Gender interaction effects: Male = 1. c Scales are reversed for in? uence, job security, information, social support, and ? exible hours when estimating job dissatisfaction. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels:(*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 0000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,200, Reg. 2 = 650, Reg. 3 = 282, Reg. 4 = 128. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 317. 1, Reg. 2 = 172. 6, Reg. 3 = 50. 8, Reg. 4 = 27. 3. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 24, Reg. 2 = 0. 3, Reg. 3 = 0. 48, and Reg. 4 = 0. 38. a Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. Job security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Male social su pportb Male job securityb OR ? xed Private (Reg. 1) High job satisfaction Table 2. Results from conditional logistic regression, when estimating the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job and being dissatis? ed with one’s job.Divided on private-sector and public-sector employees Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 11  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 12 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal employees, three additional factors have signi? cant impacts on the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job: noise halves the odds of having the highest level of job satisfaction; more ? exible working hours increase the odds of being highly satis? ed by 25 per cent; and ? nally the odds of log pay suggest that when log pay is increased by one unit the odds of being in the high satisfaction category increase by nearly 70 per cent.The effect is borderline signi? cant (p = 0. 054). Comparing the results from the conditional likelihood estimation with the results from the ordinary logistic regression analyses (as shown in Appendix B), a few discrepancies emerge: for publicly employed men having no more than a high school education lowers the probability of a high level of job satisfaction and having a leading position raises the probability of a high level of job satisfaction using ordinary regression analysis only. In? uence raises the probability of high job satisfaction signi? cantly for privately employed men but not when using ? ed effects analyses. For public employees, being exposed to aggression at the work place lowers the probability of high job satisfaction when using ordinary logistic regression analysis and the corresponding result from the ? xed effects regression is an increase in the probability of dissatisfaction when being exposed to con? icts. For private employees odd work positions only show an effect in the ? xed effects analysis. Looking at the results of predicti ng being dissatis? ed with one’s job several factors impact on the probability of both having a high degree of job satisfaction and being dissatis? d with the job. This is the case in the private sector for noise, information, role con? icts, and social support, and in the public sector for in? uence, information, and social support. On the other hand, being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, or having a job with low control in combination with high demands only has an impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed with the job. 4. 3 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job Following the results from the regressions presented in the previous sections, pay is only a signi? ant predictor of having a high level of job satisfaction in the private sector, and did not seem to have any impact on the probability of being dissatis? ed. Within both labour economic studies and work psychology, future opportunities and recognition are also considered as rewards of work. As additional information is available on future opportunities and recognition in data from 2000, the following analysis incorporates all three types of rewards. In addition, people were asked in 1995 what they considered to be the most important aspect of their work.Of the three possible answers, 11. 2 per cent answered that the pay was good (6. 0 per cent in the public sector and 14. 8 per cent in the private sector), 58. 0 per cent answered that the work interested them (65. 6 per cent in the public sector and 52. 7 per cent in the private sector), and 30. 8 per cent answered that they got along well with colleagues (28. 4 per cent in the public sector and 32. 4 per cent in the private sector). The differences among public and private employees with regard to pay support the evidence from our analyses.However the results also suggest that alternative rewards may be considered although the capability of these rewards to compensa te for hazards in the work environment is more uncertain. The second question we have sought to investigate is whether employees exposed to hazards at work for which they receive above average rewards, when comparing with employees in non-hazardous work with average rewards, report the same level of job satisfaction. This was achieved by means of calculations of predicted probabilities. The factors tested were signi? ant predictors of both having a high level of job satisfaction and being dissatis? ed with the  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 13 job. Initially, a regression on the 2000 cohort integrating recognition from leaders and future possibilities in the model was performed. The results from this regression are shown in Appendix C. The hazards analysed for private-sector employees are high noise, low levels of information and social support, and role con? icts. For the public sector, low l evels of information, in? ence, and social support are chosen. The results from varying the levels of these variables from their best, to their worst case, and at the same time maximizing the three types of rewards are shown in Table 3. The values in column 2 express the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six chosen work environment factors are in their most positive position and all other variables are held constant at the mean. Column 3 shows the probability of being highly satis? ed with the job when each of the six hazards is at the most negative level.Columns 4, 5 and 6 give the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction when the individual factors are at the worst case, single rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. Having the lowest level of information gives the lowest probability of having a high degree of job satisfaction observed for private-sector employees (0. 62). For public-sector employees the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job when information is at the lowest level is 0. 56. This is the case when all other variables are held at an average level.Moreover, the probability of being highly satis? ed with one’s job never exceeds 0. 75 as long as information is low, which is below both 0. 81 and 0. 79, the average probabilities of being highly satis? ed with the job within the public and the private sector. Low in? uence predicts the lowest probability of a high level of job satisfaction for publicsector employees, which is 0. 56. In this case it is not possible to reach the same level of job satisfaction when having the lowest possible level of in? uence, as compared with those experiencing a high level of in? uence even if receiving maximum rewards.The same is evident for social support for employees in both sectors. In contrast, the impacts of high noise or experiencing role con? icts on the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction are, however, neutralized by either the highest level of leader recognition or future opportunities, or a high wage, being among the best-paid 2 per cent in the sample. 4. 4 Hazards and the effects of rewards on the likelihood of being highly motivated in the job The analysis made in Section 4. 3 is repeated now predicting the probability of having the highest level of motivation when the levels of in? ence, social support, and information are at their worst, individual rewards are at their best, and all other variables are at their mean. The results of this regression are shown in Appendix D. Table 4 is analogous with Table 3. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the results in Table 3, except that receiving the highest level of leader recognition now seems to compensate privately employed for a low level of social support. 5. Discussion The way work environmental and socio-economic factors related to job satisfaction was not only in terms of either increasing job satisfaction or not, i. e. eing motivational factors or not. Thus in line with Herzberg et al. ’s (1959) theory some job factors also function as maintenance factors that are only being capable of making employees dissatis? ed with the job. In addition to this, some factors only had the impact of lowering the likelihood of being highly satis? ed with the job. These could be characterized as inconvenience factors with an unsettling effect on the motivation factors.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 0. 713 0. 618 0. 727 0. 736 0. 563 0. 754 0. 598 . 798 0. 825 0. 881 0. 812 P(High JS) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 838 0. 879 0. 829 0. 520 0. 721 0. 556 0. 804 0. 727 0. 814 0. 821 P(High JS) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 701 0. 848 0. 730 0. 817 0. 743 0. 827 0. 834 P(High JS) when Leader Reco gnition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 717 0. 858 0. 746 0. 815 0. 741 0. 825 0. 832 P(High JS) when Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Probability of high Job Satisfaction for private employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 901. Probability of high Job Satisfaction for public employees when all variables at their mean: 0. 8052. Leader recognition is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? ’ and future opportunities are maximized when the employee has answered ‘To a very high degree’ when asked: ‘Are the future prospects of your job good? ’. Private sector Noise Information Social support Role con? ict Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High JS) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at heir means Table 3. Probability of a high level of Jo b Satisfaction (JS) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X) 14 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 0. 268 0. 320 0. 338 0. 408 0. 161 0. 396 0. 467 P(High M) when X at its worst and the rest of the factors at their means 0. 474 0. 532 0. 507 0. 380 0. 453 0. 187 0. 299 0. 353 P(High M) when Pay is at maximum, X at its worst, and the rest of the factors at the means 0. 443 0. 518 0. 230 0. 414 0. 476 P(High M) when Leader Recognition high, X at its worst, and the rest at the means 0. 448 0. 523 0. 233 0. 356 0. 415 P(High M) hen Future Opportunities are high, X at its worst, and the rest at their means Notes: Motivation is at its highest when the employee has answered ‘Yes, indeed’ when asked: ‘Do you feel motivated and engaged in your work? ’; 39. 2% of the private employees and 46. 3% of the public employees answer ‘Yes, indeed’. Private sector Information Social support Public sector Information Social support In? uence P(High M) when X is optimal and the rest of the factors at their means Table 4. Probability of a high level of motivation (M) for varying levels of dissatisfaction factors and rewards (X)Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 15  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 16 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal While adding to the credibility of results, many respondents unfortunately are lost when using conditional likelihood estimation as those with none changing characteristics are dropped from the analysis. When comparing the results of the ordinary regression analyses with the results using conditional likelihood estimation it did not seem that controlling for ? xed effects alters results in regard to the subjective measures used.A possible explanation is that most answers are put as frequencies of exposure during working hours leaving less room for misconceptions of the questions. About two-thirds of the results on work environment variables were comm on for public- and private-sector employees, with effects of just about the same size. Common factors were odd work positions and role con? ict, both factors lowering the probability of having a high level of job satisfaction, and information on decisions that concerns the work place and social support, of which higher levels predicted being highly satis? d with the job and lower levels predicted job dissatisfaction. Factors being speci? c for the private sector were noise and a combination of low control and high demands, whereas exposure to aggression at the work place and level of in? uence only seemed to have an effect on public employees. Being exposed to violence, threats of violence or teasing, and having a job with low control in combination with high demands are examples of maintenance factors as the extent of their impact is con? ned to negative outcomes.In accordance with our results, public employees have been shown to have an increased risk of experiencing con? icts, te asing, or threats of violence at work (see Hoegh, 2005) whereas jobs with low control and high demands are typically found on industrial work sites within the private sector. In testing the ameliorative capability of rewards to compensate for the negative effects on job satisfaction deriving from exposure to (primarily psychosocial) hazards in the work environment, our results indicated only a limited effect for this type of compensating differential.In particular, rewards could not neutralize the effects on job satisfaction when employees have low levels of information on decisions that concerns the work place, social support, or, as a result for public employees only, in? uence. Most previous studies searching for evidence of compensating wage differentials for work environment hazards have been concerned with observable occupational health hazards (see Rosen, 1986), an exception being for very stressful work (French and Dunlap, 1998). The results were duplicated and even more pro nounced when the analysis was repeated substituting job satisfaction with motivation.Where the same fraction of public employees and private employees reported being highly satis? ed with the job, there was a discrepancy among the two sectors when comparing the fraction of employees reporting to be highly motivated. Thirty-nine per cent of the private employees and 46 per cent of the public employees reported to be the highly motivated. These results also correspond to the result that more public than private employees report that the most important aspect of their work was that the work interested them (66 per cent versus 53 per cent).The differences are small but the results support the theory that public employees should have higher intrinsic motivation (Benabou and Tirole, 2006). As wages did not show any signi? cant impact on the level of job satisfaction for public employees and neither had any signi? cant compensating value in regard to certain hazards at the job, the results also point to that publicly employed workers are less motivated by high pay and place a higher value on the intrinsic rewards as also seen in Karl and Sutton (1998) and Houston (2000).Very low probabilities of having a high level of job satisfaction (0. 56) and being highly motivated at the job (0. 16) were evident for public employees with the lowest level of in? uence. This clearly suggests that lack of in? uence can demotivate public employees and points to that  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 17 intrinsic motivation can be undermined if people feel controlled, and have little autonomy and freedom in performing work tasks (Deci and Ryan, 1985).Moreover, in the long run, lack of autonomy can pose a threat to value congruence between the employees and the organization, as suggested by Ren (2010). In regard to the results concerning gender differences, job security showed a general positive ef fect on job satisfaction as well as a gender-speci? c effect for employees in the public sector, suggesting women pursue job security more than men. For private employees, any effect of job insecurity would be dissatisfaction with the job and the size of the effect was just about the same for the two genders.In a study by D’Addio et al. (2003), job security was found to have the same effect for men and women after adjusting for ? xed effects. Without adjusting for ? xed effects, men seemingly valued job security the most. In the study by Clark et al. (1998), they ? nd that the extent to which women or men pursue job security varies among countries and that the differences are relatively small. These other studies have split the analyses on gender, which complicates comparison, and the differing time span of years over which the observations are made most ikely has an effect too. Clark et al. (1998) also ? nd that women report having good relations at work more often than men. Whereas Sloane and Williams (2000) ? nd that good interpersonal relations are most important for women. This is consistent with our ? nding that among private employees, women value social support more than men. The impact on job satisfaction from wages may also re? ect an effect of satisfaction with the job that derives from increased total expenditure opportunities as the question on job satisfaction in our study is one that re? cts overall job satisfaction. The results may also be dependent on the given wage structure as both wages and wages dispersion are lower within the public sector than within the private sector in Denmark at the time (Wadensjo, 1996). Finally, the impact on job satisfaction from the unemployment rate is large. D’Addio et al. (2003) found a similar negative correlation between job satisfaction and the rate of unemployment. In both the study by D’Addio et al. (2003) and our study, this relation is only signi? cant after controlling for ? xed ef fects.That is, apart from the result when making a separate analysis on gender and sector. It is noteworthy that the unemployment rate has these clear derived effects on the subjective feelings towards the job. According to the studies by Akerlof et al. (1988), a low unemployment rate makes it possible for unsatis? ed employees to change to jobs with more desired characteristics. Appendix A: List of work environment variables 1. Noise: Two levels according to answer to the below: 3/4 or more of the work day being exposed to noise that high that one must raise the voice to be able to speak with others. . Odd work positions: A score with a one point increase when respondents have marked a positive answer to the following questions: 3/4 or more of the working hours the work entails work with: 1. The back heavily bended forward with no support for hands or arms. 2. The body twisted or bended in the same way several times an hour. 3. The hands lifted to shoulder height or higher. 4. The neck heavily bended forward. 5. Squatting or kneeling.  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd 18 Lea Sell — Bryan Cleal 3. In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? 4.Low control–high strain: In? uence: Four levels; Can you plan your own work? Job variation: Four levels; Is your job varied? Time pressure: Recoded into two levels; 1995: Does your work entail that you have to work under time pressure in order to get certain pieces of work done? 2000: Is it necessary to work very fast? Mental demands: Does your work demand all your attention and concentration? 5. Job security: Two levels according to: (1995): Certain or pretty sure of keeping the job the next 12 months. (2000): The present job is not a ? xed-term appointment with less than 12 months left. . Information: Four levels; Are you informed about decisions that concern your work place? 7. Unclearness of role and con? icting demands: Two levels according to the consent or not of either of two statements: It is clear what my responsibility. I experience con? icting demands in my work. 8. Social support: (four levels — No support, always support from colleagues but not always from superiors, always support from superiors but not always from colleagues, always support from colleagues and superiors) 1995: Do you receive help and encouragement from your superior/colleagues? 000: How often do you receive help and support from superior or colleagues? 9. Con? icts, teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats, or violence (two levels): 1995: Are you exposed to any form of unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or violence at your work place? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘no’) 2000: Have you been exposed to unpleasant teasing, unwanted sexual attention, threats of violence, or physical violence at your work place within the last 12 months? (Not reporting any incidents constitutes a ‘noâ₠¬â„¢) 10.Flexibility of work schedule: Four levels according to the time space within a respondent can vary the daily working schedule without giving further notice. Can you change the placing of your working hours from day to day without making prearrangements, e. g. meet at work late or leave work early? 11. Recognition: Four levels: Is your work acknowledged and appreciated by the management? 12. Future opportunities: Four levels: Are the future prospects of your work good?  © 2011 CEIS, Fondazione Giacomo Brodolini and Blackwell Publishing Ltd Job Satisfaction, Work Environment, and Rewards 19Appendix B: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data. Divided on gender Men Private (Reg. 1) Women Public (Reg. 2) Private (Reg. 3) Public (Reg. 4) Coef. Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemployment rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high demand 5. J ob security 1 yeara 6. Information 7. Role con? ictsa 8. Social support 9. Exposed to aggressiona 10. Flexible hours Monthly pay. Ln kr Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error Coef. Standard error 0. 258 -0. 067 0. 237 0. 437* 0. 010 0. 181 -0. 011 -0. 587* -0. 176 0. 244* -0. 658 0. 087 0. 475* -0. 626* 0. 371* -0. 294 0. 175* 0. 639* 0. 1896 0. 0728 0. 1999 0. 1916 0. 0086 0. 2451 0. 0295 0. 2142 0. 1062 0. 0906 0. 4282 0. 3488 0. 0926 0. 1441 0. 0678 0. 2811 0. 0528 0. 2705 0. 1700 -0. 078 -0. 638* 0. 060 -0. 004 0. 743* 0. 010 0. 104 -0. 493* 0. 395* -0. 919 -0. 292 0. 759* -0. 578* 0. 314* -0. 732* 0. 143 0. 066 0. 2248 0. 0860 0. 2592 0. 1890 0. 0093 0. 3642 0. 0223 0. 2853 0. 1827 0. 1190 0. 6509 0. 2948 0. 1206 0. 1632 0. 0742 0. 1916 0. 0598 0. 2794 0. 307 -0. 026 0. 286 -0. 481* 0. 006 0. 348 0. 021 -0. 529(*) -0. 26 0. 121 -0. 991 0. 469* 0. 607* -0. 435* 0. 459 -0. 348* 0. 171* 0. 611* 0. 2327 0. 1004 0. 2709 0. 2177 0. 0109 0. 5299 0. 0369 0. 2808 0. 14 76 0. 1252 0. 5711 0. 3909 0. 1390 0. 2099 0. 0856 0. 2922 0. 0685 0. 2802 0. 167 -0. 015 -0. 117 -0. 1656 0. 010 -0. 267 -0. 029* -0. 044 -0. 380* 0. 247* -0. 003 0. 369* 0. 623* -0. 542* 0. 362* -0. 335* 0. 104* -0. 092 0. 1477 0. 0612 0. 1804 0. 1349 0. 0070 0. 2914 0. 0139 0. 1963 0. 1126 0. 0880 0. 5338 0. 1888 0. 0896 0. 1212 0. 0508 0. 1397 0. 0471 0. 2195 a Dichotomous variables. CI: 95% con? dence interval. Signi? cance levels: (*) 0. 05 < p < 0. 10, * 0. 000 < p < 0. 05. Number of observations: Reg. 1 = 1,356, Reg. 2 = 959, Reg. 3 = 728, Reg. 4 = 1,754. -log (Likelihood): Reg. 1 = 639. 3, Reg. 2 = 483. 2, Reg. 3 = 363. 1, Reg. 4 = 907. 1. Pseudo R2s: Reg. 1 = 0. 17, Reg. 2 = 0. 18, Reg. 3 = 0. 17, and Reg. 4 = 0. 13. Appendix C: Estimating high job satisfaction on the 2000 cross-sectional data (Reg. 1) (Reg. 2) Private (N = 2,057) Public (N = 1,296) OR Cohabitinga Number of children High school or lessa Short further education Job tenure in years Leader statusa Unemploymen t rate 1. Noisea 2. Odd work positions 3. In? uence 4. Low control–high strain . Job security 1 yeara 6. Information P>|z| CI lower CI higher OR P>|z| CI lower CI higher 1. 358 0. 934 1. 361 0. 653 1. 016 1. 252 1. 006 0. 628 0. 845 1. 121 0. 464 1. 186 1. 430 0. 042 0. 263 0. 064 0. 004 0. 024 0. 323 0. 796 0. 008 0. 058 0. 139 0. 033 0. 535 0. 000 1. 011 0. 829 0. 982 0. 488 1. 002 0. 802